付記する学位プログラム名: 霊長類学・ワイルドライフサイエンス・リーディング大学院 / 京都大学 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(理学) / 甲第24780号 / 理博第4974号 / 新制||理||1710(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院理学研究科生物科学専攻 / (主査)教授 明里 宏文, 准教授 足立 幾磨, 教授 平田 聡 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Science / Kyoto University / DGAM

Excerpt: The conclusions by Boerlage, Masman, Hagoort, Tibboel, Baar, and Dijk (2010) were interesting, but the supports for the conclusions were weak because of a number of shortcomings. The many weaknesses would prevent the immediate adoption of those conclusions in a health care setting.

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Surgical castration of young male piglets is an extremely common husbandry procedure in the United States swine industry, with nearly 100% of males castrated. The procedure is performed primarily to prevent the occurrence of boar taint in the meat and to reduce aggression as the animals age. No research has investigated the impact of surgical castration on the long-term mood states – also known as the affective state – of piglets, but it has been proven to cause both acute and chronic pain that can last up to 4 days, modify piglet behavior, and reduce weight gain. Because of this, feasible approaches for pain alleviation are needed. A hinderance to this is that currently no analgesics are approved for piglets. In addition, we need validated, practical methods to recognize pain in piglets in order to help researchers, veterinarians, and caretakers to identify the need for analgesics. One useful tool for this could be the Piglet Grimace Scale, which has previously been validated in this context, but is not widely applied. The current lack of analgesic use during castration may be cause for concern for consumers, however little is known about the public's knowledge on the industry's practices. Therefore, the thesis' objectives are to (1) assess the impact of surgical castration on pain and affective states, (2) determine people's ability to recognize pain expression after surgical castration, and (3) get insights into public perception of swine industry practices. In Chapter 3, we assessed the impact of surgical castration and practical pain alleviation methods during and after castration on piglets' short and long-term affective states and activity levels. Piglets were surgically castrated, castrated with analgesics, or sham-handled at 3 days of age. Data on piglets' activity (using accelerometers), tails (affective states), and grimaces (pain expression) were collected for 1, 6, and 24 hours after castration treatments while piglets were in their home pens. An attention bias test was then performed in week 1 and 12 to assess anxiety (an affective state). Home pen activity after castration treatments suggested that there was a positive impact of using analgesics. The piglets' behavior (eating) and activity during the attention bias test at week 1 suggest a negative impact of castration on affective states. The differences observed in week 1 were no longer found in week 12, suggesting that any impact of surgical castration at 3 days of age on affective states are no longer detectable at 12 weeks of age. In Chapter 4, through an online survey we investigated the validity and reliability of Piglet Grimace Scale ratings applied by swine industry professionals and the general public, to assess its potential utility in non-research settings. The survey contained a training, followed by 9 piglet images showing facial expressions immediately after castration or sham-handling. Both response groups were able to recognize pain in castrated piglets. However, both response groups overestimated pain experience compared to trained experts, suggesting more training may be necessary. Nevertheless, overall, the scale can be widely applied by veterinarians, industry professionals and even members of the public. In Chapter 5, a survey provided initial insights into public knowledge and perceptions on castration and analgesia use and compared this to industry stakeholders. The results show that knowledge on industry practices was especially lacking for public respondents, but also for a minority of industry respondents, indicating opportunities for education and further research on the topic. / Master of Science / Surgical castration is performed on nearly every male piglet in the United States swine industry. Males are castrated to prevent the occurrence of boar taint and to reduce aggression. Boar taint is the unpleasant odor produced by the skatole and androsterone in the fat when the meat is prepared. It is unclear how this practice impacts piglet's long-term mood states (affective states), but we do know it causes pain, changes in behavior, and reduced productivity. Thus, we need feasible approaches for pain relief. However, there are currently no pain relievers approved for piglets. In addition, we need validated, practical methods to quantify pain in piglets in order to identify the need for pain relief. One useful tool is the Piglet Grimace Scale, which is validated but is not widely applied. The current lack of pain relief use during castration may concern consumers, yet no data is collected on this. Therefore, the thesis' objectives are to (1) assess the impact of surgical castration on pain and affective states, (2) determine people's ability to recognize pain expression after surgical castration, and (3) get insights into public perception of swine industry practices. In Chapter 3, we assessed the impact of surgical castration and practical pain alleviation methods during and after castration on piglets' short and long-term affective states and activity levels. Piglets were surgically castrated, castrated with analgesics, or sham-handled at 3 days of age. Home pen activity after castration treatments showed a positive impact of using analgesics. The piglets' behavior and activity during an attention bias test at week 1 suggest that piglets were experiencing a negative emotional state after castration. The differences seen in week 1 were no longer found in week 12. This suggests that any potential impact of surgical castration on affective states are no longer detectable at 12 weeks of age. In Chapter 4, an online survey was used to investigate the Piglet Grimace Scale ratings applied by swine industry professionals and the general public. After training, respondents scored 9 images showing facial expressions of piglets after castration or sham-handling. Both public and industry people were able to recognize pain in castrated piglets. However, both response groups overestimated the pain experience compared to trained experts, suggesting more training may be necessary. Nevertheless, overall findings suggest that the scale can be widely applied. In Chapter 5, a survey provided insights into public knowledge and perceptions on castration and pain relief use in the industry, and compared this to industry stakeholders. The results showed that knowledge on industry practices was especially lacking for public respondents, but also for a minority of industry respondents, indicating opportunities for education and further research on the topic.

Aim: The overall aim of the thesis was to explore and describe registered nurses’ (RNs) and certified nursing assistants’ (CNAs) experiences of detection and assessment of pain in older people with cognitive impairment and dementia. A further aim was to evaluate the Abbey Pain Scale-SWE (APS-SWE) in dementia care practice. Methods: An exploratory and descriptive design was used in Study I. An exploratory and interpreting design was used in Study II and Study III. A prospective, descriptive, observational and instrumental design was used in Study IV. Focus group interviews (I) and individual interviews (II, III) were applied to explore and describe RNs’ and CNAs’ experiences of pain assessment in people living with dementia. Qualitative content analysis (I) and philosophical hermeneutics (II) were used to analyse qualitative data. Observation, instrument, and questionnaire were applied to evaluate reliability and face validity of the APS-SWE for pain assessment. Descriptive statistics and reliability analyses were used to analyse quantitative data (IV). Results: RNs in special housing accommodation settings experiences that pain assessment in people with dementia is challenging primarily due to their changed RN consultant role, which to a great extent is directed into administrative and consultative tasks rather than bedside care. This has led to decreased time in daily nursing care, preventing recognising symptoms of pain. This have also led to that RNs are dependent on information from CNAs who are the front-line staff providing daily care (I). CNAs’ perception of signs of pain in people with dementia emerges from being present in the care situation and alertness on physical and behavioural changes that could be due to pain, and from providing the care in a preventive, protective and supportive way to prevent painful situations occurring (II). RNs and CNAs working in home healthcare team use a variety of strategies to detect and assess pain. A trustful work relationship based on staff continuity and a good relation to the person in need of care facilitates pain assessment situations (III). Systematic observation of older people living in special housing accommodation during rest and mobility using the APS-SWE demonstrates that the scale has adequate internal consistency, reliability, and face validity for pain assessment (IV). Conclusions: This thesis found that the RNs’ and CNAs’ detections and assessments of pain rely on solid cooperation, staff continuity, and good knowledge of the person cared for. It was also revealed that there is a lack of using appropriate and assisting pain tools. The APS-SWE show adequate reliability and face validity and can serve as a useful pain tool to assist in detection and assessment of pain in older people who are limited in verbalising pain recognisable. Further evaluation of how the person-centred perspective is applied in pain assessment situations is needed in order to evaluate positive outcomes in people with dementia. Further psychometric evaluation of the APS-SWE in clinical dementia care practice is needed to strengthen validity and reliability.

Bakgrund: Det är vanligt att patienter inom den kommunala hälso- och sjukvården lider av smärta. Upprepade studier pekar på att validerade smärtskattningsinstrument inte används i någon större utsträckning. Sjuksköterskors bristande kunskap om smärta, smärtskattning och smärtbehandling leder till sämre smärtlindring och försämrad livskvalitet för patienten. Syfte: Studiens syfte är att undersöka sjuksköterskors uppfattning om smärtskattning och smärtskattningsinstrument inom den kommunala hälso- och sjukvården. Metod: En litteraturöversikt valdes för att genomföra studien. I studien ingår elva artiklar som analyserades med kvalitativinnehållsanalys. Resultat: I analysen framkom tre kategorier; kunskap, teamsamverkan och barriärer. Studien visar att sjuksköterskor sällan använder sig av smärtskattningsinstrument i sitt dagliga arbete. De anser att det är svårt att smärtskatta en icke-verbal patient samt de patienter som drabbats av kognitiv svikt. Sjuksköterskor saknar kunskap om smärta och smärtlindring. Det framkommer även flera olika barriärer för smärtskattning så som tidsbrist och personalbrist. Teamet runt patienten ansågs viktigt för att förbättra smärtskattning och smärtbehandling. Slutsats: Resultatet visar att sjuksköterskors kunskaper om smärta och smärtskattning är bristfällig. Arbetslivserfarenhet bidrar inte heller till att sjuksköterskor blir mer benägna att smärtskatta. Det behövs mer utbildning om smärta och smärtskattningsinstrument. / Background: It is common for patients in municipal healthcare to experience pain. Repeated studies indicate that validated pain assessment tools are rarely used. Nurses' lack of knowledge concerning pain, pain assessment and pain relief leads to poor quality pain management which leads to poor quality of life. Aim: The aim of the study was to investigate nurses' opinions of pain assessment and pain assessment tools in municipal healthcare. Method: A literature review was conducted in which eleven scientific studies were examined and analyzed according to qualitative content analysis. Result: Three categories: knowledge, teamwork and barriers, emerged from the analyses. The study shows that nurses rarely use pain assessment tools in their daily work. Nurses generally think it is complicated to assess pain in non- verbal patients or in patients with cognitive impairment. They also feel that they have a lack of knowledge when it comes to pain relief and pain assessment. Other barriers is lack of time and personnel. The multi professional team is seen as an important part to improve pain assessment and pain management. Conclusion: The result points towards the fact that nurses lack skills in pain management. It is not enough to learn from work experience. More extensive education is needed to gain nurses' interest and skills about pain.

Bakgrund: Smärta är ett flerdimensionellt fenomen och ett vanligt problem inom äldrevården. Smärtbehandling finns att tillgå, trots detta är smärta underbehandlat hos äldre patienter. Syftet: Syftet med studien är att belysa hur sjuksköterskor bedömer fysisk smärta i omvårdnad av äldre patienter. Metod: Litteraturöversikt med kvalitativ ansats har använts. Datamaterialet bestod av fem kvantitativa och fyra kvalitativa vetenskapliga artiklar. Resultat: Det framkom tre huvudkategorier: smärtbedömningsprocesser, smärtbedömningsmetoder och smärtbedömningsredskap. Ur huvudkategorierna urskildes sex underkategorier: smärtidentifiering, smärtbedömningssvårigheter, kommunikation med patienterna för att bedöma smärta, smärtobservation, smärtbedömningsinstrument och dokumentation. Slutsatser: För att göra en smärtbedömning behövs en god relation till patienten, närstående och övrig personal där kommunikation har central roll. Sjuksköterskan måste tro på patientens egen skattning och smärtupplevelse. / Background: Pain is a multidimensional phenomena and a common problem in care of elderly patients. There are several pain treatment methods available however pain is often not fully treated. Aim: The aim of this study is to illustrate how nurses assess physical pain in care of elderly patients. Method:  A literature review based on a qualitative approach has been used. The study consists of an analysis of five quantitative and four qualitative research articles.  Results: Three main categories were found: the process of pain assessment, the methods of pain assessment and the tools of pain assessment. Those categories were further divided into six subcategories: pain identification, pain assessment difficulties, patient communication to assess pain, pain observations, pain assessment instruments and documentation. Conclusions: Pain assessment requires a good relation to the patient as well as relatives and other staff. Communication takes a central part of the pain assessment. A nurse must believe in the patient's own estimation and pain perception.

Bakgrund: svårigheter uppstår med kommunikationen mellan patient och sjuksköterskan vid insjuknande i Alzheimers sjukdom vilket leder till hinder i smärtbedömning av personer med Alzheimers sjukdom jämfört med bedömningen avpersoner utan kognitiv nedsättning. Syfte: syftet med litteraturstudien var att belysa vikten av korrekt smärtbedömning hos patienter med Alzheimers sjukdom. Metod: studien var en litteraturstudie, 12 artiklar samtliga kvantitativa som svarade mot studiens syfte har granskats och analyserats. Resultat och konklusion: bedömning av smärta hos patienter med Alzheimers sjukdom är komplex, slutsatsen är tvetydig då resultatet visar dels att personer med Alzheimers sjukdom har mer smärta respektive mindre smärta än personer utan kognitiv nedsättning. Bedömningsinstrumenten som undersöktes i studien visade sig vara relevanta men ansvar och kunskap från sjukvårdspersonalen som använder instrumentet var ett krav för att kunna utesluta felkällor av tecken på smärta så som onormala rörelser, beteende och ljud. Implikation: vidare forskning bör göras där fokus ligger på de enskilda diagnoserna istället för gruppen demenssjukdomar samt ökad kunskap hos sjukvårdspersonal på smärta i relation till Alzheimers sjukdom. / Background: difficulties with communication is shown in the progress of Alzheimer’s disease which leads to a difference in assessment of pain in persons with Alzheimer’s disease compared to persons without a cognitive impairment. Aim of the study: the aim of the study was to illuminate the importance of correct pain assessment in patients with Alzheimer’s disease. Method: the study was a literature review, 12 quantitative articles which met the study’s purpose was reviewed and analyzed. Results and conclusions: pain assessment in patients with Alzheimer’s disease is complex, the conclusion is ambiguous since the results show that people with Alzheimer’s disease has more in some studies and less pain in others in comparison with people without a cognitive impairment. The pain assessment tools that were examined in this study were shown to be relevant, but it was important that the staff using the instruments had to be able to rule out confounders of pain such as unusual movements, behaviour and sounds. Implication: further research should focus on the the separate diagnoses that are included in the dementia genre. Also an increased knowledge and awareness in the staff about pain in correlation with Alzheimer’s disease.

Bakgrund Sjuksköterskor ansvarar för att bedöma om en patient har smärta, vilket kan vara utmanande om patienten har svårt att kommunicera. För att bidra med mer kunskap kring detta uppfattades ett behov av att undersöka vad sjuksköterskor inom olika verksamheter har för erfarenheter kring att bedöma smärta hos dessa patienter och deras tankar kring smärtskattning som omvårdnadsåtgärd. Syfte Syftet med studien var att belysa sjuksköterskors erfarenheter kring smärtskattning av patienter med nedsatt förmåga att kommunicera. Metod Semistrukturerade intervjuer genomfördes med sjuksköterskor inom olika verksamheter i Umeå och analyserades med kvalitativ innehållsanalys. Resultat Vi identifierade erfarenheter som sammanställdes inom åtta olika kategorier fördelade på fyra domäner. Centrala iakttagelser är att smärtskattning bör ske med välfungerande metoder och att smidiga rutiner för deras användning är viktiga. Det behövs mer kunskap om smärtskattning för att kunna komplettera de erfarenheter som finns. För att förbättra kvaliteten bör likaså hänsyn tas till nackdelar med alltför stela arbetssätt för att inte den personliga kunskapen och viljan ska gå förlorad. Likaledes behöver verktygen förbättras. Slutsats Smärtskattning är ett komplext ämne. Sjuksköterskorna som idag utför smärtskattning på olika sätt anser att välfungerande, enkla verktyg tillsammans med fungerande lokala rutiner kring deras användning skulle kunna förbättra omvårdnaden i många fall. / Background Nurses are responsible for pain assessment in patients, a challenging task if the patient has a communicative impairment. To contribute to more knowledge regarding the present situation we identified a need to study nurses’ experiences regarding assessment of pain among these patients, and their thoughts around pain assessment as a nursing method. Aim The aim of the study was to illuminate nurses’ experiences of pain assessment in patients with impaired ability to communicate. Method Semi-structural interviews were conducted with nurses within different health care settings in Umeå. They were interpreted using a qualitative content analysis. Results The analysis identified experiences within eight categories in four domains. A central observation is that assessment needs to be conducted with good quality methods and that smooth routines regarding there use is crucial. Deeper knowledge about pain assessment need to complement the nurses’ experiences to improve quality, as well as recognising disadvantages with too strict routines need to be taken into consideration. The assessment tools also need further development. Conclusion Pain assessment is a complex issue. Nurses that are practicing this today reflects the view that well functioning tools together with functional routines regarding their use could help improve nursing in many cases.

Bakgrund: Smärta är ett vanligt symtom hos palliativa patienter medcancersjukdom. En del patienter är inte fullt smärtlindrande och detta kan skapa ettonödigt lidande för patienterna som försämrar deras livskvalité.Syfte: Syftet är att belysa kunskapsläget om hur sjuksköterskor utvärderarsmärtsymtom hos palliativa patienter med cancersjukdomMetod: En litteraturstudie med 16 artiklar av både kvalitativ och kvantitativmetod valdes ut från databaserna Cinahl och Pubmed.Resultat: Sammanställningen av artiklarna resulterade i fyra stycken olika teman.Dessa är bedömningsinstrument, att utvärdera med eller utanbedömningsinstrument, sjuksköterskans utvärderande arbete, utvärdering medolika instrument.Slutsats: Genom att använda smärtbedömningsinstrument kan sjuksköterskansarbete att utvärdera smärtsymtom underlättas och smärtsymtom för patientenminskas. Genom en planerad implementering av dessa bedömningsinstrument meden kompletterande utbildning kan sjuksköterskan få bättre kunskap ombedömningsinstrument vilket kan leda till bättre förståelse och förutsättningar förpalliativa patienternas behov av smärtutvärdering. Detta kan leda till förbättradupplevd livskvalité hos de palliativa patienterna med cancersjukdom. / Background: Pain is a common symptom in palliative cancer patients. Somepatients are not fully relieved of pain which can create unnecessary suffering forthe patients.Aim: The purpose is to describe how nurses evaluate pain symptoms in palliativepatients with cancer.Methods: A literature study with 16 articles consisting of both qualitative andquantitative methods from two databases, Cinahl and Pubmed.Results: The compilation of the articles resulted in four different themes. Theseare pain assessment instruements, to evaluate with or without pain assessmentinstruments, the nurse's evaluation work, and comparison of different instruments.Conclusions: By using pain assessment tools, the nurse's work to evaluate painsymptoms can be facilitated and pain symptoms for the patient reduced. Through aplanned implementation of these assessment instruments with a supplementaryeducation, the nurse can gain better knowledge of the assessment instrument canlead to a better understanding and conditions for palliative patients' needs for painevaluation. This can lead to improved perceived quality of life in the palliativepatients with cancer.