<p>The increasing use of temporary and part-time employment in recent decades was initially expected to lead to negative effects for the individual. The empirical evidence, however, has been equivocal and the consequences are therefore still unclear. This thesis adopts a psychological approach to alternative employment by investigating how heterogeneity in employment contracts together with individual differences associate with work attitudes and subjective well-being. It comprises four studies in which questionnaire data is used to study differences among temporary workers (Study I & II) and differences in the alternative workforce (fixed-term, on-call, and part-time workers) compared to permanent full-time workers (Study III & IV), in order to analyze the impact of different types of contracts together with individual differences. Study I found that attitudes, role stress, and health varied across different patterns in individuals’ backgrounds and contract forms. Study II demonstrated that distinct patterns of voluntary and involuntary contract motives and of work involvement associated with differences in reported work-related and general well-being. Study III showed that well-being and organizational attitudes were related to individuals’ job and contract preferences and, to some degree, heterogeneity in contract types. Study IV revealed that individuals’ perceptions of job conditions (control, demands, and job insecurity) predicted well-being, whereas type of employment contract was found to be less important. Employment contract forms, however, interacted with individual diversity in Study III and IV. The thesis concludes that differences among individuals are important for understanding the implications of different types of alternative employment contracts. Future research should focus on these interactive mechanisms to better understand the consequences of alternative employment forms.</p>

The increasing use of temporary and part-time employment in recent decades was initially expected to lead to negative effects for the individual. The empirical evidence, however, has been equivocal and the consequences are therefore still unclear. This thesis adopts a psychological approach to alternative employment by investigating how heterogeneity in employment contracts together with individual differences associate with work attitudes and subjective well-being. It comprises four studies in which questionnaire data is used to study differences among temporary workers (Study I &amp; II) and differences in the alternative workforce (fixed-term, on-call, and part-time workers) compared to permanent full-time workers (Study III &amp; IV), in order to analyze the impact of different types of contracts together with individual differences. Study I found that attitudes, role stress, and health varied across different patterns in individuals’ backgrounds and contract forms. Study II demonstrated that distinct patterns of voluntary and involuntary contract motives and of work involvement associated with differences in reported work-related and general well-being. Study III showed that well-being and organizational attitudes were related to individuals’ job and contract preferences and, to some degree, heterogeneity in contract types. Study IV revealed that individuals’ perceptions of job conditions (control, demands, and job insecurity) predicted well-being, whereas type of employment contract was found to be less important. Employment contract forms, however, interacted with individual diversity in Study III and IV. The thesis concludes that differences among individuals are important for understanding the implications of different types of alternative employment contracts. Future research should focus on these interactive mechanisms to better understand the consequences of alternative employment forms.

The overall purpose of this master essay is to investigate whether there is an interest among people near retirement to contribute with their knowledge and experience after they reach the defined retirement age. Furthermore, I would like to investigate if they want to continue with their old jobs, full time/part time or to do something else, which is beneficial to the society. I also want to find out how the older people view themselves to continuing to work. Also which types of social and structural barriers that might exist for them and why. The aim is also to investigate what types of knowledge and experience they believe could be used in the future community. For that purpose I have structured interview questions and conducted eight individual interviews. Below is a brief summary of the main results. The study shows that there is a general interest in working after retirement. Most people prefer to work only part-time. Participation and influence is meaningful to the individuals. It is seen as having a positive impact on individuals, groups and societal perspectives. At the individual level, the relationship between the possibility to choose both type of work and working hours and the desire to continue working, is very strong. The choice contributes to the feeling that life is meaningful. That proved to be of great motivation to participate in the working life. The study shows the importance of paying attention to flexible working hours adapted at individual level. The results also show that the elderly are often pictured as competent, knowledgeable and skilled people, which resources can be utilized in the society. It also appeared that older people are carriers of knowledge and experiences, which can be taken care of and transferred on to the younger generations instead of being lost. The study pointed out that there is manual work situations particularly risky for older people. It also revealed negative factors such as competition for the jobs between younger and older people, which can create an opinion in society against letting older people work. The results also indicate that the mixture of older and younger people creates a knowledge and experience transfer which creates new approaches to working tasks. It also emerged a number of factors that influence an individual's choice to attend to work; Important to take an individual approach, assess the participant’s interests and abilities for the particular job, his desired working hours and the need of upgrading or retraining.

This thesis analyzes the right to reconcile work and family responsibilities which is recognized as crucial in women&amp / #8223 / s participation in the labor market. When women can not fully enjoy their right to work due to the burden of unequal gender division of labor, they become more vulnerable to poverty and male violence which impede them from developing their basic human capabilities. States should acknowledge that this is a human rights problem which is deriving from women&amp / #8223 / s overburden as primary caregivers. In order to overcome this problem and transform the patriarchal structure of the market and the family / state intervention in the private sphere is required. Two alternative reconciliation models are examined. The first is the equality driven model that encompasses parental leave and childcare facilities, which necessitate positive intervention of the state and more likely to trigger structural change. The other is the flexibility or market driven model which is based on part-time work and homeworking strategies. They target women&amp / #8223 / s participation in the labor market without necessarily leading to any change in the gender divisionof labor. The effectiveness of these strategies is analyzed within a feminist jurisprudence method. While the focus is on the international framework, including the EU Member States, the specific case of Turkey is also considered. Given Turkey&amp / #8223 / s socio-economic particularities, childcare largely depends on kinship relations and social policies regulating women&amp / #8223 / s labor market participation are market driven. The data shows that women in Turkey do not equally enjoy their economic and social rights. Therefore, by examining the international framework for right to reconcile work and family responsibilities, it is hoped that a case can be made to call on Turkey to abide by its international obligations to grant this right.

This essay examines the impact of employees' working hours on genderequality. There is a problem linked to part-time and full-time work alongwith gender equality, which leads to that significantly more women workspart-time than men do. The reason to this is partially because the welfareindustry is female-dominated and infused by part-time employment, andbecause of the uneven distribution of roles between the sexes. A new rule ofpresumption has been formulated in the Employment Protection Act(1982:80) which stipulates that all employment contracts apply for full-timework, unless agreed otherwise. The purpose of this essay is to investigate theprovision of full-time as the norm and whether an extension of workinghours will promote equality in the labor market. A shortening of workinghours is presented as another possible solution to the gender equalityproblem and after that, both possibilities get analyzed with their pros andcons and their relevant legislation. To investigate whether full-time work as a norm will improve genderequality, research results from previous full-time projects are compared. Insummary, the results of this essay show that full-time work as a norm islikely to be a successful equality tool, but previous research has shown thatsupplementary measures will then be required. Among other things, it will berequired that the government works to remove unfavorable working hoursand that the welfare professions become more sought after among men.Another important measure is to work more actively to remove the unevengender distribution around unpaid domestic and care work. This is importantbecause it is something that leads to many women not getting their lifepuzzle together and therefore choosing to work part-time instead of full-timein order to have more time to spare

The economic boom that we have been receiving is based on extraordinary macroeconomic figures, all economicactors are involved, the most influential being the level of involvement of the human factor that boosts productivity and increases returns profits to companies. The labor market is really dynamic and form part of this expansionary cycle gear, homogeneously transforming the economy and labor; however, the view of human capital in its environment the use of time, be it economically: leisure, is just one aspect emphasized in labor trials because modeling studies focus on the value of the numbers of companies, market measurements, compared asymmetries between firms, census, etc., but very little importance on the labor supply of families and the reasons that drive people to workon the dynamics of the different modalities used in employment pays off.This time, wich of the part time work, we could find the factors that influence families to join the labor market in part-time days. Thus, the purpose of the study lies in the eye of leisure and its relation to the initiative of working part- time as a single share of the person providing their workforce in the labor market. To have the theoretical basis of this dynamic resort to the theory of labor supply, which imposes the perspective of the study of the family and its members, analyzing the role that the individual and needs to face the labor market, if so, determining how to work part time. The significant element is the labor supply behavior, which is preceded by the decisions of the person, which reveals the actions of the economic function of the choice of the individual consumer and therefore its participation in thelabor market. / Es bachiller en Economía por la Universidad NacionalFederico Villarreal, y diplomado en Gestión de Recursos Humanos por la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú (PUCP). De igual modo, es magíster en Rela- ciones Laborales por la PUCP. Se ha desempeñado como jefe de práctica en el Departamento Académico de Ciencias Administrativas de la PUCP. En la actualidad, trabaja en la Dirección de Recursos Humanosde la PUCP. / O boom econômico alcançado está baseado em números macroeconômicos extraordinários; todos os agentes econó-micos estão envolvidos, o mais influente é o nível de envolvimento do fator humano, o que aumenta a produtividade e aumenta os lucros das empresas. O mercado de trabalho é muito dinâmico e faz parte deste ciclo econômico expansivo que transforma homogeneamente a economia e a força de trabalho. No entanto, o capital humano e o uso do tempo de lazer é um aspecto pouco enfatizado no campo trabalhista. Isso ocorre porque a modelagem de estudos incide sobre o valor dos números nas empresas, mensuração do mercado, comparações entre as empresas, censos, etc.; entretanto, não é rentável a importância das famílias na oferta de trabalho nem as razões que levam as pessoas a trabalhar com a dinâmica utilizada em diferentes tipos de trabalhos.Desta vez, através do modo de part-time, nós poderíamos encontrar os fatores que influenciam as famílias para integra- se ao mercado de trabalho a tempo parcial. O objetivo do estudo encontra-se no lazer e sua relação com a iniciativa de trabalhar a tempo parcial como uma participação individual da pessoa no mercado de trabalho. Para ter a base teórica desta dinâmica, usamos a teoria da oferta de trabalho, o que impõe a perspectiva do estudo da família e seus membros. A partir daí, deve-se analisar o papel do indivíduo e as necessidades que o levam a enfrentar o mercado de trabalho, neste caso, o trabalho a tempo parcial. Note-se que o elemento significativo na oferta de trabalho é a conduta que é precedida pelas decisões do indivíduo. Isso revela o papel econômico sobre as escolhas do consumidor e, portanto, suaparticipação no mercado de trabalho.

This diploma thesis deals with use of alternative work arrangements. It introduces the topic of job flexibility and alternative work arrangements. It focuses mainly on the use of four main alternative work arrangements as provided by the International Labour Organization, which are: temporary employment, part-time work, temporary agency work and self-employment. The text compares data regarding these four alternative work arrangements in the European Union. The thesis also includes a qualitative research carried out in big organizations in Prague that assesses what forms of alternative work arrangements do they use, what are the reasons for opting for some of the alternative work arrangements in an organization and it identifies the most beneficial alternative work arrangements, applicant groups and job positions that the alternative work arrangements are used for the most. KEY WORDS labour market flexibility, non-standard employment, flexible working arrangements, temporary employment, part-time work, temporary agency work, self-employment

部分工時工作在先進國家實施許久，且各國部分工時人口多佔一定比例並具有明顯的性別特性，即部分工時勞動型態女性化之現象，特別是女性勞工為了調和工作與家庭生活而選擇了部分工時工作。現階段我國尚未就部分時間工作制定專法，因此部分工時者相關法律仍需回歸現有傳統全時工作者之勞動法令。惟就法令面而言，國內部分工時者與全時工作者勞動條件全然相同，卻仍然產生邊緣化發展趨勢，即便雇主及勞工有縮短工時需求，但運用部分時間工作的比例仍然偏低，顯示現行規定不但無法充分落實保障部分工時工作者勞動權益，與促進利用目標也是背道而馳。對雇主來說缺乏進用誘因，對大多數未就業的婦女而言也無意願藉由部分工時工作來調和工作與家庭之間的衝突。爰上，本研究主要目的係探討我國部分時間工作勞工法制建構可行性，從中發現現行法規在適用部分工時勞動型態產生的窒礙難行之處，立法時兼顧部分工時之勞動條件及促進利用之可能。 本研究藉由相關文獻回顧與整理，瞭解部分時工作現況、定義、適用及所遭遇之問題；再透過與勞工團體、資方團體、政府機關、學者專家及勞工個案代表進行深度訪談，蒐集勞資政學各方代表對於部分工時法制建構之意見，以尋求發現我國部分工時法制建構之方向。經文獻及訪談結果發現，在面臨婚育或家庭照顧而選擇退出職場，再度返回職場二度就業之婦女並從事部分時間工作者，其最大特性是多數仍有家庭照顧責任，僅是責任減輕、非家庭中主要負擔家計者，基於補貼家用考量，而選擇部分時間工作，認為部分工時具有工時短及工時彈性，可以兼顧家庭照顧，對部分工時工作的滿意度高，故部分工時勞工保護之立法仍應兼顧促進利用規劃，以吸引潛在婦女勞動力投入職場。 本研究經由文獻探討及訪談結果歸納以下建議： 一、制定部分工時勞動專法，明文規範部分工時勞動權益。 二、避免部分工時全職(時)化發展，創造友善的部分工時工作機會。 三、明文規範部分工時均等待遇原則。 四、以部分時間工作提供全時工作以外之就業選項，避免已婚婦女因婚育而離開職場。 五、部分工時勞工之教育訓練，應同時兼顧技能再生安全。 / Part-time employment in advanced countries has been implemented for a long time, It has provided female could chose part-time work to reconcile work and family life therefore, it got very high female population accounts for a certain percentage in the part time work. It caused the trendies to feminize of the phenomenon with significant gender characteristics. However, Taiwan has not yet institutionalized in Part-Time Worker Protection Law, thus the legal status of part-time workers still needs to be governed by the traditional full-time workers' labour laws. Although the part-time worker and full-time work be treated with the same law and the same working condition in Taiwan but why employees and employers using this kinds of working pattern still low percentage in the whole labour population accounts and the part-time workers and forward to marginalized development. It shows that the existing regulation not only could not fully implement the protection of part of the labor rights of workers. consequently, the goal of the promote to use the part-time worker is also run counter to the partial hours workers of the labor rights and also short of incentives for employers to use the part-time worker. For most unemployed potential women, there is no intention to reconcile work and family conflicts by working hours. This study is reviewed and collected by relevant literature to understand the current situation, definition, application and problems encountered in the part-time work. According to depth interviews with labour groups, employers' groups, government agencies, academics and labour case representatives to collect the opinions of the representatives of the parties and seeking to find the direction of the construction of Part-Time Worker Protection Law of our legal system. From the literature and interviews found out, women abandon the job when they get marriage or give birth to their own breed and to devote for the family. Those women get employed once again to choose to be a part time worker the most of reasons is that women have family care responsibilities although they are not main economic supporter consequently they reduce the part of the cost of living and subsidize home when they chose part time work. Most of them admit the part-time work has working hour’s elasticity and short hours and flexibility. Because of those reasons, they are satisfied this type of work pattern of the part-time work. Part-Time Worker Protection Law of the labour protection legislation should still take into account the promotion of the use of planning and to attract potential women's labour force into the labour market. Based on the findings, this summarizes the following suggestions : 1) To establish the Part-Time Worker Protection Law in Taiwan, specific regulations the part-time worker rights and definition clarity. 2) It should create a friendly part-time employment environment and prevent part-time work become full-time work. 3) To establish of equal treatment between full-time and part-time. 4) Create another choice of employment for marriaged women, to avoid the most women quit their job as they got marriage and bore their breeds. 5) The part-time labors' education and training should also improve their skills reproduction security.

L’opera analizza l’evoluzione del contratto di lavoro a tempo parziale nell’ordinamento europeo e italiano. In Italia successivamente a una fase pionieristica la prima regolamentazione legislativa, l. n. 864 1983, lascia aperti numerosi problemi interpretativi. L’ordinamento europeo tenta di superare la mancanza di una specifica regolamentazione a protezione del lavoro part-time, basandosi sul principio della parità di retribuzione tra uomini e donne, come affermato dalla Corte di giustizia. Infine il part time è regolato dalla Direttiva 97/81, che da un lato rappresenta l’apice del Dialogo sociale europeo, dall’altro è tra gli istituti su cui la Strategia europea per l’occupazione fa affidamento, soprattutto per aumentare il tasso di presenza femminile al lavoro. Successivamente, la legge n. 61/2000 traspone la direttiva nell’ordinamento italiano. A partire da allora in un’ ottica di favorire l’incremento del part time, alcune clausole subiscono numerose modifiche, che oscillano tra delega alla contrattazione collettiva e all’autonomia individuale. L’incremento del part time nel corso degli ultimi anni, anche a seguito della crisi, è rappresentato da part timers involontari, che accettano questo contratto soltanto in mancanza di un impiego a tempo pieno. Infine si compie un’analisi circa i futuri sviluppi della normativa sul tempo parziale. Più nello specifico, la perenne tensione tra contrattazione collettiva e autonomia individuale, entrambe indispensabili, dovrebbe tendere ad un nuovo equilibrio regolativo. Inoltre le auspicate modifiche legislative in ordine a un pieno diritto al part time, non potranno ignorare, in un’ ottica funzionale, una armonizzazione con le regole in tema di aspettative e permessi. / The study focuses on part-time work evolution in the European and Italian systems. After a pioneering phase, the first legislative regulation in Italy, law n. 864/1983, raises a number of interpretation problems. The European System attempts to overcome the lack of a specific regulation to protect part-time work by relying on the principle of equal pay for men and women as stated by the European Court of Justice. In the end, part-time is regulated by Directive 97 /81 which, on the one hand, represents the success of the European social dialogue and, on the other hand, is one of the most important means to increase the number of women in the work market according to the European Employment Strategy. At a later stage, the law n . 61/2000 transposes the Directive into the Italian system. Since then, in a perspective of increasing part-time, some clauses in Italy undergo numerous changes which specifically range from delegation to collective bargaining and to the individual autonomy. The increased number of part-timers in recent years, partly as a result of the economic crisis, is represented by the involuntary part-timer workers, which accept contracts only in the absence of full time employment. In the end, the study anticipates future developments in part-time work regulation. More specifically, the constant tension between individual autonomy and collective bargaining, which are both crucial, should tend to a new regulative equilibrium. In addition, future advocated legislative changes related to a full right to part-time should not ignore, in a functional perspective, the harmonization with the rules regarding leaves of absences and other permitted absences.

The labor market reform in Spain during the international financial crisisThe crisis emerged in 2008 has caused a marked degradation of employment in Spain and an emergency legislation in a very short time, which is analyzed in the study. / La crisis surgida en 2008 ha provocado una acusada degradación del empleo en España y una legislación de emergencia en muy poco tiempo, que se analiza en el estudio.