The aim of this thesis is to contribute with knowledge about if and how attitudes towards the welfare state in Sweden differ between people who live in sparsely populated areas and people in densely populated areas. We argue that the different conditions for welfare services to operate in different places, where cities have greater access to e.g. schools and health care from both public and private actors, while municipals in sparsely populated areas are characterized by fewer options and challenges in the upkeep of the existing services, could be of significance in people’s differing attitudes toward the welfare state. A quantitative study is implemented using data from the 2018 round of the Swedish Welfare State Survey, where five hypotheses are investigated by multivariate regression analyses. The result suggests that there are no significant differences in people’s attitudes toward the welfare state depending on where you live. Other factors, such as perceived risk, class, gender and age seem to explain differences in welfare state attitudes better. We conclude, however, that the performance of and attitudes towards welfare state services is a subject of interest for future research due to the potential consequences of an escalating urban-rural divide, as seen in other parts of the world.

[pt] O brasileiro não tem o hábito de beber vinho. Pesquisas mostram que o crescimento do consumo de vinho no Brasil é vegetativo a mais de 30 anos. Dentro desse contexto, a presente pesquisa tem como objetivo explorar os fatores inibidores ao consumo do vinho, principalmente em restaurantes. Barreiras ao consumo, como o preço e o desconhecimento são analisadas, assim como os riscos associados ao consumo do vinho em restaurantes. As conclusões inferem que, em situações de exposição pública, o risco social e o risco financeiro podem ser considerados como fatores inibidores ao consumo. Paralelamente, a pesquisa identifica um consumidor interessado por uma forma de consumo mais simples e uma relação mais descontraída com o vinho. Esses resultados contribuem para um possível reposicionamento do produto, com o objetivo de popularizar seu consumo. / [en] Brazilian people don´t have the habit of drinking wine. Previous researches have shown that, for the last 30 years, the consumption-increasing rate is vegetative. The present research has the objective of describing the inhibition factors related to wine consumption, basically in restaurants. Consumption barriers, as price and the lack of knowledge, are analyzed, as well as the risks associated with the consumption in restaurants. Conclusions shows that, in situations were people face high public exposition, social and financial risk can be considered as consumption inhibition factors. Other important conclusion is that, the present research identifies a consumer interested in a simplest way of drinking wine. Interested in a more soft and smooth relation with wine. Those results contribute for a possible reposition of wine, in order to stimulate and popularize its consumption.

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Designing for sustainability is a complex process that requires to reduce the perceived risk of designing out of the traditional method, to prioritize the end-users' needs and preferences in the design, while considering the product-service dual-nature of infrastructure systems. To address such complexities, this research looks into prototyping from design thinking. Prototyping is a feedback mechanism that enriches the design process by emphasizing user experience and removing designers' fear of failure. This critical step is often absent during the design of physical infrastructure (e.g., transportation systems, water systems), in part, because of the size and complexity of these socio-technical systems. This research aims to understand how civil engineers can adopt prototyping design for large-scale and complex urban infrastructure systems and how prototyping influence design cognition among infrastructure stakeholder groups. To measure the effect of physical prototypes on users and designers, the researchers conducted nineteen interviews with community members, engineers, planners, and city officials in two prototyped projects: a road network in Macon, Georgia and a re-designed city block in Akron, Ohio. The researchers coded the interviews for evidence of how prototyping enhanced citizen engagement and how the design team was willing to adopt unconventional designs after prototyping. Improved understanding of prototyping as a design methodology for infrastructure can lead to more user-centered and innovative solutions. This research provides tools to manage design decisions in engineering and urban planning better, and new approaches for urban infrastructure problem-solving. Future research can compare how this process may inform design if immersive virtual experiences are used to prototype. / Doctor of Philosophy / Designing sustainable infrastructure is a complex process that requires designers and engineers to ‘think out of the box’ and to increase the considerations of the users’ needs and preferences in the design. The inclusion of users’ needs and preferences in the design is challenging because designers restrict themselves to come up with non-traditional ideas due to the high risks that are in play when developing infrastructure. This research looks into adapting the prototyping process of design thinking into the planning, design, and construction of infrastructure systems because of its user-centered and innovate design characteristics. Particularly, this research studied the cases of an urban transit design in Macon, Georgia and an urban revitalization design in North Hill, Akron, Ohio. Overall, the researchers conducted nineteen interviews among the design team members, project promoters, city officials, and users such as neighborhood residents, property and business owners, and community advocating groups. The interviews questioned how prototyping enhanced citizen engagement and how designers were willing to adopt unconventional designs after prototyping. This study aims to contribute to the development of more user-centered and innovative solutions in the design of infrastructure. Engineering and urban planning problem-solving practices can use the decision-making tools this study provides. Future studies can use the fast-growing technology of virtual and augmented reality to enrich the prototyping process to deliver more sustainable infrastructure systems.

In recent years, with the rapid development of Internet technology, live streaming e-commerce has gradually become the focus of public attention and has occupied an increasingly important position in consumers' daily lives. The significant difference between online retail and offline retail is whether consumers can directly touch the products, and the perception of the products plays a key role in consumers' purchasing decisions. Therefore, how to display products effectively is crucial for online retailers. This study aims to explore how the product display method of live streaming e-commerce affects consumers' impulsive buying behaviour, and collect consumers' views on live streaming e-commerce through questionnaires. The results show that improving the vividness and interactivity of product displays significantly enhances virtual touch, which in turn promotes impulsive buying behaviour. However, there is a positive correlation between virtual touch and perceived risk, and perceived risk fails to significantly inhibit impulsive buying behaviour, but instead shows a positive correlation, that is, high perceived risk increases impulsive buying behaviour. The conclusions of this study provide new insights into the future interaction model between online retailers and consumers, promote two-way communication, and improve communication efficiency. Through this study, online retailers can provide consumers with an experience closer to offline shopping when using live streaming e-commerce, thereby more effectively prompting consumers to make purchasing decisions.

Information systems researchers typically use self-report measures, such as questionnaires to study consumers’ online risk perception. The self-report approach captures the conscious perception of online risk but not the unconscious perception that precedes and dominates human being’s decision-making. A theoretical model in which implicit risk perception precedes explicit risk evaluation is proposed. The research model proposes that implicit risk affects both explicit risk and the attitude towards online purchase. In a direct path, the implicit risk affects attitude towards purchase. In an indirect path, the implicit risk affects explicit risk, which in turn affects attitude towards purchase. The stimulus used was a questionable web site offering pre-paid credit card services. Data was collected from 150 undergraduate students enrolled in a university. Implicit risk was measured using methods developed in social psychology, namely, single category-implicit association test. Explicit risk and attitude towards purchase were measured using a well-known instrument in the e-commerce risk literature. Preliminary, unconditioned analysis suggested that (a) implicit risk does not affect explicit risk, (b) explicit risk does not affect attitude to purchase, and (c) implicit risk does not affect attitude towards purchase.

E-commerce is today a very attractive market with growth prospects and opportunities for new companies to establish themselves and start operations. Since the establishment of Internet and the evolution of how Internet is used today, there has been an increasing possibility for consumer’s to buy products online. The more expanding E-commerce business today makes companies and entrepenuers eager to establish markets online. There is though a opportunity with the expanding of E-commerce today and that is for companies to investigate how consumer’s values the risks of shopping online. This opportunity is something that companies should take in care before starting an E-commerce market. This study aims to identify consumers' perceived risk in purchasing decisions in relation to E-commerce. The study is intended to give a broader perspective to be helpful for companies who are in business with e-commerce or supposed to conduct and begin sales activities through Ecommerce. This will be achieved by showing which factors consumers find to be most affecting to their uncertainty and risk when buying online. The survey methodology used in this study was a quantitative method where we deduced hypotheses to ensure on previous research and theories that the results of our investigation was consistent with what we concuded in our study. To come up with the answers we received, we used questionnaires in which respondents were asked to answer on a seven-point scale how they felt the risk of shopping online today. The results of this study shows us that consumer’s perceived risk will grow if the purchase is of an high engagement product, we can also conclude that there will be a decline in perceived risk if the websites have good design, user friendly navigation, clear information about consumer’s warranty and right of return.

While previous studies have investigated country-of-origin effect from various angles, it remained unexplored the extent to which Country of Origin Labeling (COOL) affects U.S. beef imports from specific countries. Using choice-experiment data, willingness to pay (WTP) for Australian, Canadian beef in addition to other enhancement attributes were estimated with a Mixed Logit Model and a Latent Class Model. The results revealed unobserved taste heterogeneity and important differences in the WTP between the imported and domestic steak. The Latent Class Model estimated the range of discount needed for consumers to switch from U.S. to Canadian steak was a range from $1.09 to $35.12 per pound. Results from the Mixed Logit Model reiterated strong domestic preference. Significant positive WTP for BSE-tested, traceable, and tenderness-assured beef were also observed. In addition, perceived risk theory was utilized to explain the difference in WTP for domestic and imported beef. The psychometric method proposed in Pennings et al. (2002) were adopted, which disentangled perceived risk into risk perception and risk attitude. Using a mixed logit model with error component specification, the result revealed a strong link between risk perception and risk attitude towards consumer choice of country-of-origin labeled beef. Specifically, we found that perceived risk factors have a stronger impact on imported beef than domestic beef, which could partially explain consumers’ aversion towards imported beef. Lastly, the perceived risk framework was expanded to explain variation in the WTP for traceable and BSE-tested beef. The results indicated significant and non-linear impact from risk attitude and risk perception to WTP for the attributes. In addition, BSE-concern, and perceived level of control agribusiness has on food safety significantly influenced WTP for traceable and BSE-tested beef.

在現今這個「宅經濟」漸漸蓬勃的的年代，上網購物變成一種新興的購物 型態與休閒娛樂的管道，越來越多人選擇上網採購以免除出外購物所耗損 的時間跟精力。因此，網路拍賣開始受到許多人的歡迎，舉凡吃、穿、用 的，都可以在拍賣的世界中找到各式商品。但是，網路購物雖然方便，卻 也因為消費者無法直接接觸賣方與商品而使得糾紛事件層出不窮。因此， 多數消費者對於網路購物一直存有或多或少的知覺風險。在缺乏面對面接 觸下，網路口碑變成消費者是否購買此一商品的重要考量。而拍賣網站中 所提供的評價機制，就是一種消費者藉由口碑來了解賣方的管道。因此， 本研究試圖探討賣方的評價內容留言，對消費者購買意願與知覺風險的影 響。透過實驗法，架設兩種情境。情境A讓受試者接收正面評價內容，而情 境B則讓受試者觀看負面評價內容。本研究對象皆為有網路購物經驗的大學 生與研究生，共收集了126份有效樣本，根據研究結果分析，所得結論有三： 一、賣方良好評價留言會減少買方的知覺風險，而極差評價留言會增加買 方知覺風險的程度。 二、知覺風險越高，購買意願則越低。 三、賣方的評價留言對買方的購買意願有顯著影響。 / Many consumers often hesitate to buy product on-line because of the perceived risk of losing money and the feeling of uncertainty about the credibility of the sellers. Therefore, many auction sites have built feedback systems in order to provide consumers a tool of reference when engaging in online shopping activities. This study conducts an experiment in order to investigate how feedback comments may influence consumers’ level of perceived risk and their purchase intention. The research mainly focuses on two different patterns of feedback comments (Outstanding comments and abysmal comments) in an online auction market, to see if these comments affect consumers’ level of perceived risk and their purchase intention. The research subjects are college and graduate school students who have previous online shopping experiences. In total, this study collects 126 validated samples. According to the research results, there are three main conclusions: 1. Seller’s outstanding feedback comments will decrease buyer’s perceived risk in online shopping; on the contrary, seller’s abysmal feedback comments will increase buyer’s perceived risk. 2. If the buyer has lower perceived risk, the purchase intention will be higher. 3. Seller’ feedback comments will influence buyer’s purchase intention.