Les milieux humides remplissent plusieurs fonctions écologiques d’importance et contribuent à la biodiversité de la faune et de la flore. Même s’il existe une reconnaissance croissante sur l’importante de protéger ces milieux, il n’en demeure pas moins que leur intégrité est encore menacée par la pression des activités humaines. L’inventaire et le suivi systématique des milieux humides constituent une nécessité et la télédétection est le seul moyen réaliste d’atteindre ce but. L’objectif de cette thèse consiste à contribuer et à améliorer la caractérisation des milieux humides en utilisant des données satellites acquises par des radars polarimétriques en bande L (ALOS-PALSAR) et C (RADARSAT-2). Cette thèse se fonde sur deux hypothèses (chap. 1). La première hypothèse stipule que les classes de physionomies végétales, basées sur la structure des végétaux, sont plus appropriées que les classes d’espèces végétales car mieux adaptées au contenu informationnel des images radar polarimétriques. La seconde hypothèse stipule que les algorithmes de décompositions polarimétriques permettent une extraction optimale de l’information polarimétrique comparativement à une approche multipolarisée basée sur les canaux de polarisation HH, HV et VV (chap. 3). En particulier, l’apport de la décomposition incohérente de Touzi pour l’inventaire et le suivi de milieux humides est examiné en détail. Cette décomposition permet de caractériser le type de diffusion, la phase, l’orientation, la symétrie, le degré de polarisation et la puissance rétrodiffusée d’une cible à l’aide d’une série de paramètres extraits d’une analyse des vecteurs et des valeurs propres de la matrice de cohérence. La région du lac Saint-Pierre a été sélectionnée comme site d’étude étant donné la grande diversité de ses milieux humides qui y couvrent plus de 20 000 ha. L’un des défis posés par cette thèse consiste au fait qu’il n’existe pas de système standard énumérant l’ensemble possible des classes physionomiques ni d’indications précises quant à leurs caractéristiques et dimensions. Une grande attention a donc été portée à la création de ces classes par recoupement de sources de données diverses et plus de 50 espèces végétales ont été regroupées en 9 classes physionomiques (chap. 7, 8 et 9). Plusieurs analyses sont proposées pour valider les hypothèses de cette thèse (chap. 9). Des analyses de sensibilité par diffusiogramme sont utilisées pour étudier les caractéristiques et la dispersion des physionomies végétales dans différents espaces constitués de paramètres polarimétriques ou canaux de polarisation (chap. 10 et 12). Des séries temporelles d’images RADARSAT-2 sont utilisées pour approfondir la compréhension de l’évolution saisonnière des physionomies végétales (chap. 12). L’algorithme de la divergence transformée est utilisé pour quantifier la séparabilité entre les classes physionomiques et pour identifier le ou les paramètres ayant le plus contribué(s) à leur séparabilité (chap. 11 et 13). Des classifications sont aussi proposées et les résultats comparés à une carte existante des milieux humide du lac Saint-Pierre (14). Finalement, une analyse du potentiel des paramètres polarimétrique en bande C et L est proposé pour le suivi de l’hydrologie des tourbières (chap. 15 et 16). Les analyses de sensibilité montrent que les paramètres de la 1re composante, relatifs à la portion dominante (polarisée) du signal, sont suffisants pour une caractérisation générale des physionomies végétales. Les paramètres des 2e et 3e composantes sont cependant nécessaires pour obtenir de meilleures séparabilités entre les classes (chap. 11 et 13) et une meilleure discrimination entre milieux humides et milieux secs (chap. 14). Cette thèse montre qu’il est préférable de considérer individuellement les paramètres des 1re, 2e et 3e composantes plutôt que leur somme pondérée par leurs valeurs propres respectives (chap. 10 et 12). Cette thèse examine également la complémentarité entre les paramètres de structure et ceux relatifs à la puissance rétrodiffusée, souvent ignorée et normalisée par la plupart des décompositions polarimétriques. La dimension temporelle (saisonnière) est essentielle pour la caractérisation et la classification des physionomies végétales (chap. 12, 13 et 14). Des images acquises au printemps (avril et mai) sont nécessaires pour discriminer les milieux secs des milieux humides alors que des images acquises en été (juillet et août) sont nécessaires pour raffiner la classification des physionomies végétales. Un arbre hiérarchique de classification développé dans cette thèse constitue une synthèse des connaissances acquises (chap. 14). À l’aide d’un nombre relativement réduit de paramètres polarimétriques et de règles de décisions simples, il est possible d’identifier, entre autres, trois classes de bas marais et de discriminer avec succès les hauts marais herbacés des autres classes physionomiques sans avoir recours à des sources de données auxiliaires. Les résultats obtenus sont comparables à ceux provenant d’une classification supervisée utilisant deux images Landsat-5 avec une exactitude globale de 77.3% et 79.0% respectivement. Diverses classifications utilisant la machine à vecteurs de support (SVM) permettent de reproduire les résultats obtenus avec l’arbre hiérarchique de classification. L’exploitation d’une plus forte dimensionalitée par le SVM, avec une précision globale maximale de 79.1%, ne permet cependant pas d’obtenir des résultats significativement meilleurs. Finalement, la phase de la décomposition de Touzi apparaît être le seul paramètre (en bande L) sensible aux variations du niveau d’eau sous la surface des tourbières ouvertes (chap. 16). Ce paramètre offre donc un grand potentiel pour le suivi de l’hydrologie des tourbières comparativement à la différence de phase entre les canaux HH et VV. Cette thèse démontre que les paramètres de la décomposition de Touzi permettent une meilleure caractérisation, de meilleures séparabilités et de meilleures classifications des physionomies végétales des milieux humides que les canaux de polarisation HH, HV et VV. Le regroupement des espèces végétales en classes physionomiques est un concept valable. Mais certaines espèces végétales partageant une physionomie similaire, mais occupant un milieu différent (haut vs bas marais), ont cependant présenté des différences significatives quant aux propriétés de leur rétrodiffusion. / Wetlands fill many important ecological functions and contribute to the biodiversity of fauna and flora. Although there is a growing recognition of the importance to protect these areas, it remains that their integrity is still threatened by the pressure of human activities. The inventory and the systematic monitoring of wetlands are a necessity and remote sensing is the only realistic way to achieve this goal. The primary objective of this thesis is to contribute and improve the wetland characterization using satellite polarimetric data acquired in L (ALOS-PALSAR) and C (RADARSAT-2) band. This thesis is based on two hypotheses (Ch. 1). The first hypothesis stipulate that classes of plant physiognomies, based on plant structure, are more appropriate than classes of plant species because they are best adapted to the information content of polarimetric radar data. The second hypothesis states that polarimetric decomposition algorithms allow an optimal extraction of polarimetric information compared to a multi-polarized approach based on the HH, HV and VV channels (Ch. 3). In particular, the contribution of the incoherent Touzi decomposition for the inventory and monitoring of wetlands is examined in detail. This decomposition allows the characterization of the scattering type, its phase, orientation, symmetry, degree of polarization and the backscattered power of a target with a series of parameters extracted from an analysis of the coherency matrix eigenvectors and eigenvalues. The lake Saint-Pierre region was chosen as the study site because of the great diversity of its wetlands that are covering more than 20 000 ha. One of the challenges posed by this thesis is that there is neither a standard system enumerating all the possible physiognomic classes nor an accurate description of their characteristics and dimensions. Special attention was given to the creation of these classes by combining several data sources and more than 50 plant species were grouped into nine physiognomic classes (Ch. 7, 8 and 9). Several analyzes are proposed to validate the hypotheses of this thesis (Ch. 9). Sensitivity analysis using scatter plots are performs to study the characteristics and dispersion of plant physiognomic classes in various features space consisting of polarimetric parameters or polarization channels (Ch. 10 and 12). Time series of made of RADARSAT-2 images are used to deepen the understanding of the seasonal evolution of plant physiognomies (Ch. 12). The transformed divergence algorithm is used to quantify the separability between physiognomic classes and to identify the parameters (s) that contribute the most to their separability (Ch. 11 and 13). Classifications are also proposed and the results compared to an existing map of the lake Saint-Pierre wetlands (Ch. 14). Finally, an analysis of the potential of polarimetric parameters in C and L-band is proposed for the monitoring of peatlands hydrology (Ch. 15 and 16). Sensitivity analyses show that the parameters of the 1st component, relative to the dominant (polarized) part of the signal, are sufficient for a general characterization of plant physiognomies. The parameters of the second and third components are, however, needed for better class separability (Ch. 11 and 13) and a better discrimination between wetlands and uplands (Ch. 14). This thesis shows that it is preferable to consider individually the parameters of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd components rather than their weighted sum by their respective eigenvalues (Ch. 10 and 12). This thesis also examines the complementarity between the structural parameters and those related to the backscattered power, often ignored and normalized by most polarimetric decomposition. The temporal (seasonal) dimension is essential for the characterization and classification of plant physiognomies (Ch. 12, 13 and 14). Images acquired in spring (April and May) are needed to discriminate between upland and wetlands while images acquired in summer (July and August) are needed to refine the classifications of plant physiognomies. A hierarchical classification tree developed in this thesis represents a synthesis of the acquired knowledge (Chapter 14). Using a relatively small number of polarimetric parameters and simple decision rules, it is possible to identify, among other, three low marshes classes and to discriminate with success herbaceous high marshes from other physiognomic classes without using ancillary data source. The results obtained are comparable to those from a supervised classification using two Landsat-5 images with an overall accuracy of 77.3% and 79.0% respectively. Various classifications using the support vector machine (SVM) can reproduce the results obtained with the hierarchical classification tree. But the possible exploitation by the SVM of a higher dimensionality, with a maximum overall accuracy of 79.1%, does not allow however to achieve significantly better results. Finally, the phase of the Touzi decomposition appears to be the only parameter (in L-band) sensitive to changes in water level beneath the peat surface (Ch. 16). Therefore, this parameter offer a great potential for peatlands hydrology monitoring compared to the HH-VV phase difference. This thesis demonstrates that the Touzi decomposition parameters allow a better characterization, better separability and better classifications of wetlands plant physiognomic classes than HH, HV and VV polarization channels. The grouping of plant species into physiognomic classes is a valid concept. However, some plant species sharing a similar physiognomy, but occupying a different environment (high vs. low marshes), have presented significant differences in their scattering properties.

No description available.

Em diversos estudos ao redor do globo, a estrutura e heterogeneidade da vegetação têm se mostrado um fator determinante na diversidade de espécies de aves e também de outros grupos de animais. O Cerrado é o segundo mais extenso e mais ameaçado bioma de ocorrência no Brasil. Este bioma também é caracterizado por um evidente gradiente ambiental de estrutura e heterogeneidade de vegetação. Na presente tese analisamos a influência da estrutura e heterogeneidade da vegetação sobre a diversidade em comunidades de aves do Cerrado. Nossa expectativa era corroborar a “Hipótese de Heterogeneidade de Habitats”, que propõe que quanto maior a estrutura e heterogeneidade da vegetação, maior será a diversidade de espécies. No primeiro capítulo, realizamos uma compilação sistemática de estudos publicados sobre a diversidade de aves em áreas ocupadas por algumas fisionomias típicas de Cerrado lato sensu, com o intuito de analisar o conhecimento obtido até então acerca da relação entre diversidade de aves e a estrutura da vegetação no Cerrado. Foram selecionadas 72 amostras de 22 estudos, sendo que estas amostras variaram quanto ao tipo fisionomia amostrada e o método amostral empregado, além de também estarem disponíveis em diferentes artigos e serem realizadas em diferentes regiões geográficas. Para análises destes dados, utilizamos a análise de modelos lineares generalizados de efeitos mistos (modelo com distribuição de erros poisson), que permite analisar os efeitos de variáveis fixas e aleatórias sobre a variável explicativa (riqueza de espécies). As variáveis fixas foram o tipo de vegetação amostrada (vegetação campestre, savânica e florestal) e o método amostral empregado (ponto fixo, transecto e redes de neblina). Já as variáveis de efeito aleatório utilizadas foram o estudo onde os dados foram publicados, o autor de cada estudo e a localidade geográfica. O efeito destas variáveis aleatórias poderiam afetar somente os interceptos das relações entre as variáveis fixas e a variável explicativa ou poderiam alterar a relação entre as variáveis fixas e explicativa. Construímos diversos modelos a partir da combinação de variáveis de efeito fixo e aleatório e a seleção do modelo mais parcimonioso foi feito por meio do critério AICc (critério de informação de Akaike corrigido para pequenas amostras). O modelo que apresentou menor valor de AICc (mais parcimonioso) foi aquele que incluiu os efeitos de ambas variáveis de efeito fixo (fisionomia e método amostral) e também um efeito da interação entre estas duas variáveis. Neste modelo também foram incluídos os efeitos das variáveis aleatórias estudo e localidade geográfica sobre os interceptos das relações entre as variáveis de efeito fixo e a variável explicativa. Estes resultados mostraram que a riqueza de espécies de aves em nosso estudo variou não só em função da fisionomia e do método amostral empregado, mas dependendo do método amostral utilizado a relação entre riqueza e fisionomia também foi alterada. Portanto, esta interação não permitiu que fosse estimada a relação entre fisionomia e riqueza sem considerar o efeito dos métodos. Já os efeitos das variáveis aleatórias mostraram que a variação estimada nos interceptos entre estudos foi duas vezes maior do que a variação estimada entre localidades geográficas. O efeito da interação entre as variáveis fisionomia e método amostral apontou para a existência de heterogeneidade de detecção entre locais com diferentes fisionomias, além também de um efeito das fisionomias na efetividade dos diferentes métodos amostrais. A influência dos métodos amostrais no número de espécies observadas em cada fisonomia pode ser esperada devido às diferenças intrínsecas dos métodos, já que ponto fixo e transecto são baseados em contatos visuais e auditivos com as espécies, enquanto que o método de rede de neblina consiste na captura passiva das espécies que voam na altura das redes. Assim, redes de neblina podem ser mais efetivas em habitats menos estruturados (por ex. campos limpos e sujos), onde a rede alcança quase todo os estratos de vegetação. No entanto, o método de transecto pode ser mais efetivo que o método de ponto fixo em áreas de florestas, pois nestes hábitats as espécies tendem a ter territórios menores e o deslocamento do observador proporciona ao observador cobrir um maior número de terrítórios. Por outro lado, o ponto fixo pode ser mais vantajoso por não produzir ruído e afugentar as espécies, o que pode ser uma desvantagem do método de transecto. Outros fatores, como a experiência e número de observadores, número de pontos amostrais, número de redes utilizadas e comprimento de transectos, podem explicar a grande variação estimada entre os estudos. Uma das maneiras de se contornar estes efeitos metodológicos é utilizar métodos desenvolvidos especialmente para lidar com diferentes probabilidades de detecção entre espécies, entre sítios e até métodos amostrais, o que poderia render dados mais confiáveis para o estudo da ecologia das espécies e para a elaboração de planos de manejo e/ou conservação. No segundo capítulo, a relação entre diversidade de aves e estrutura da vegetação foi analisada a partir de dados coletados em campo e utilizando um protocolo de amostragem específico para se estimar e considerar os efeitos da vegetação sobre a detecção das espécies. As amostragens foram realizadas em um dos maiores e mais preservados remanescentes de Cerrado (Parque Nacional Grande Sertão Veredas-PARNA GSV) e consistiram do registro das espécies de aves em 32 áreas dispostas em um gradiente de vegetação de Cerrado, que variaram desde campos limpos e sujos, campos cerrado a cerrados sensu stricto. O cálculo da riqueza de espécies de aves em cada sítio foi realizado através de modelos de ocupação-detecção, adaptados para estimar a riqueza de espécies em comunidades. A vegetação, por sua vez, foi medida a partir de estimativas de presença da vegetação entre 0 e 4 m de altura (16 intervalos de 22,5 cm cada um) e duas variáveis de estrutura foram obtidas a partir de uma análise de componentes principais, que foi aplicada para resumir a variação da presença de vegetação nos 16 intervalos de altura. Estas variáveis de vegetação foram relacionadas tanto com a ocupação quanto com a detecção das espécies, já que a estrutura da vegetação poderia influenciar não só a ocorrência mas também a detecção das espécies. O dia da amostragem e também a temperatura no momento da amostragem também foram incluídas como covariáveis que poderiam afetar a detecção. Após a estimativa da riqueza de espécies pelo modelo de ocupação-detecção para comunidades, esta riqueza estimada foi relacionada por uma função quadrática com a estrutura da vegetação usando um modelo bayesiano de metanálise, que permitiu incluir a incerteza nas estimativas de riqueza na análise. A título de comparação, também foi ajustado um modelo quadrático GLM (distribuição de erros normal) aos dados de riqueza observada. Os resultados mostraram que a riqueza estimada a partir dos dados das 38 espécies mais detectadas durante as amostragens teve uma fraca relação com as duas covariáveis de estrutura de vegetação, sendo que houve uma maior riqueza de espécies em sítios com vegetação intermediária em altura e uma maior riqueza de espécies de aves em sítios onde houve maior presença de vegetação abaixo de 2 m de altura. No entanto, as relações entre riqueza estimada e estas covariáveis foi menos intensa mas qualitativamente similar às relações entre a riqueza observada e as covariáveis de vegetação. A menor intensidade nas relações da riqueza estimada foi evidenciada principalmente em ambos os extremos do gradiente de estrutura vertical da vegetação e também nas áreas com menor presença de vegetação abaixo de 2 m. Estes resultados mostraram que o efeito da detecção pode alterar o efeito da relação entre riqueza de espécies e estrutura de vegetação. Além disso, ao menos para as 38 espécies mais comumente encontradas na área de estudo, os resultados apontam para a importância de todo o gradiente de estrutura da vegetação para a manutenção da riqueza de espécies de aves no Cerrado. Futuros estudos que visem aprimorar o uso destes modelos de ocupação e detecção para comunidades são fundamentais para permitir o uso dos dados de todas as espécies da comunidade. Além disto, outros estudos que se proponham a analisar a dinâmica e composição das comunidades de aves nestes gradientes de estrutura de vegetação são fundamentais para um maior conhecimento sobre a ecologia e conservação das aves no Cerrado / In several studies around the globe, the structure and diversity of vegetation have been shown to be a determining factor in the diversity of species of birds and also other groups of animals. The Cerrado is the second most extensive and most threatened biome occurrence in Brazil. This biome is also characterized by an obvious environmental gradient of vegetation structure and heterogeneity. In this thesis we analysed the influence of the structure and diversity of the vegetation on the diversity in the Cerrado bird communities. Our expectation was to support the “Habitat Heterogeneity Hypothesis” which suggests that the higher the structure and diversity of vegetation, the greater the diversity of species. In the first chapter, we conducted a systematic compilation of published studies on the diversity of birds in areas occupied by some typical physiognomy of Cerrado textit lato sensu, in order to analyze the knowledge obtained so far about the relationship between diversity of birds and the structure of the vegetation in the Cerrado. We selected 72 samples from 22 studies, and these samples varied as the sampled vegetation physiognomy, the sampling method used, and they also are available in different articles and be carried out in different geographical regions. We performed the analysis of generalized linear mixed effects models (model poisson distribution errors), which allows us to analyse the effects of fixed and random variables on the explanatory variable (species richness). Fixed variables were the type of sampled vegetation (grassland, savanna and forest) and the sample method employed (fixed point, transect and mist nets). The random variables used were the study where the data were published, the author of each study and geographic location. These random variables could only affect the intercepts of the relationship between fixed and variable explanatory variable or could alter the relationship between fixed and explanatory variables. We built several models from the combination of fixed and random effects variables and selection the most parsimonious model was made by the AIC criterion (Akaike information criterion corrected for small samples). The model that showed lower value of AIC (more parsimonious) was the one that included the effects of both fixed effect variables (physiognomy and sampling method) and also an effect of the interaction between these two variables. In this model were also included the effects of random variables study and geographic location of the intercepts of the relationship between the fixed effect variables and the explanatory variable. These results showed that the bird species richness in our study varied not only in terms of physiognomy and sample method, but depending on the sampling method used the relationship between richness and physiognomy has also changed. Therefore, this interaction does not allowed us to estimate the relationship between physiognomy and richness without considering the effect of the methods. Since the effects of random variables showed that the variation in the estimated intercept between studies was twice larger than the estimated variation between geographic locations. The effect of interaction between the vegetation physiognomy and sampling method variables pointed to the existence of heterogeneity detection between locations with different physiognomies, in addition also of an effect of the physiognomies in the effectiveness of different sampling methods. The influence of the sampling method in the number of species observed in each physiognomy may be expected due to intrinsic differences in the methods, since fixed point counts and transect are based on visual and aural contacts with the species, while the mist net method consists in passive capture of species flying at the time of the networks. Thus, mist nets may be more effective in less structured environments (eg. Clean and dirty fields) where the net reaches virtually all vegetation layers. However, transect method can be more effective than the fixed point method in areas of forests since in these habitats species tend to have smaller territory areas, and the observer movement provides the observer cover greater areas. On the other hand, the point counts can be more advantageous not to produce noise and chase species, which may be a disadvantage of transect method. Other factors, such as experience and number of observers, the number of sampling points, the number of nets used and length of transects, may explain the wide variation between studies estimated. One of the ways to overcome these methodological effects is to use methods developed especially to deal with different probabilities of detection of species, between sites and sampling methods, which could yield more reliable data for the ecological study of the species and the development of management plans and/or conservation. In the second chapter, the relationship between diversity of birds and vegetation structure was analysed from data collected in the field and using a specific sampling protocol to estimate and consider the effects of vegetation on the detection of species. The samples were taken in one of the largest and well preserved remnants of Cerrado (Grande Sertão Veredas National Park-PARNA GSV) and consisted of the record of bird speciesin 32 areas arranged in a Cerrado vegetation gradient, ranging from grasslands, open and dense savannas. The calculation of the bird species richness at each site was conducted using occupancy-detection models adapted to estimate the number of species in communities. The vegetation, in turn, was measured from estimates of the presence of vegetation in height intervals between 0 and 4 m (16 intervals of 22.5 cm each) and two structure variables were obtained from a principal component analysis applied to summarize the variation of the vegetation presence in height intervals. These vegetation variables were related to both the occupation and detection of species, since the vegetation structure could influence not only the occurrence but also the detection of species. The day of sampling and also the temperature at the time of sampling were also included as covariates that may a_ect the detection. After the estimation of species richness by model occupancy detection for communities, this estimated richness was related by a quadratic function with the vegetation structure using a Bayesian meta-analysis model, which allowed us include uncertainty in richness estimates. By way of comparison, we also fit a quadratic model GLM (normal distribution errors) to the observed richness data. The results showed that the richness estimated from the data of the 38 most detected species during sampling had a weak relationship with both covariates vegetation structure, and there was a greater number of species at sites with intermediate vegetation height and greater bird species richness in places where there was a greater presence of vegetation below 2 m in height. However, relations between estimated richness and these covariates was less intense but qualitatively similar to the relationship between observed richness and vegetation covariates. The lowest intensity in the estimated richness relationship was observed mainly at both ends of the vertical gradient of vegetation and also in areas with less presence of vegetation below 2 m. These results showed that the effect of detection can change the effect of the relationship between species richness and vegetation structure. Moreover, at least for the 38 species most commonly found in the study area, the results point to the importance of the entire vegetation structure gradient to maintain the bird species richness in Cerrado. Future studies aiming to improve the use of these models of occupation and detection for communities are essential to allow the use of data of all species in the community. In addition, other studies that propose to analyse the dynamics and composition of bird communities in these vegetation structure gradients are fundamental for a better understanding of the ecology and conservation of Cerrado birds

No description available.

Upbringing and psychological make-up inspire individual norms for beauty and cuteness. The mannerist approach in my work is a product of the figural liberties found in cartooning, illustration and art history. By altering facial and bodily features, I relate the proportions of an infant to cuteness and innocence. However, I tailor the photographs to empower the subjects all the while mirroring trends in contemporary pop culture. I'm interested in themes of everyday life, vitality and emotion placed in obscure, imaginary or exaggerated venues. I fictionalize subjects of my reality to compel viewers to identify with and fancy emotions, circumstances, moods and relationships. The intent is to amplify, yet be truer to their existence and idiosyncrasies through figural adaptations.

There are many factors that contributed to the proliferation of visual codes, metaphors and references to the gendered gaze in women's fiction of the late-eighteenth and early-nineteenth centuries. This thesis argues that the visual details in women's novels published between 1778 and 1815 are more significant than scholars have previously acknowledged. My analysis of the oeuvres of Jane Austen, Ann Radcliffe, Maria Edgeworth and Fanny Burney shows that visuality — the nexus between the verbal and visual communication — provided them with a language within language capable of circumventing the cultural strictures on female expression in a way that allowed for concealed resistance. It conveyed the actual ways in which women ‘should' see and appear in a society in which the reputation was image-based. My analysis journeys through physiognomic, psychological, theatrical and codified forms of visuality to highlight the multiplicity of its functions. I engage with scholarly critiques drawn from literature, art, optics, psychology, philosophy and anthropology to assert visuality's multidisciplinary influences and diplomatic potential. I show that in fiction and in actuality, women had to negotiate four scopic forces that determined their ‘looks' and manners of looking: the impartial spectator, the male gaze, the public eye and the disenfranchised female gaze. In a society dominated by ‘frustrated utterance,' penetrating gazes and the perpetual threat of misinterpretation, women novelists used references to the visible and the invisible to comment on emotions, socio-economic conditions and patriarchal abuses. This thesis thus offers new insights into verbal economy by reassessing expression and perception from an unconventional point-of-view.

<p dir="ltr">Global forest ecosystems provide essential ecosystem services that contribute to water and climate regulation, food production, recreation, and raw materials. They also serve as crucial habitats for numerous terrestrial species of amphibians, birds, and mammals worldwide. However, recent decades have witnessed unprecedented changes in forest ecosystems due to climate change, shifts in species distribution patterns, increased planted forest areas, and various disturbances such as forest fires, insect infestations, and urbanization. These changes can have far-reaching impacts on ecological networks, human well-being, and the well-being of global forest ecosystems. To address these challenges, I present four studies to quantify forest dynamics through mapping, classification, and projection, using artificial intelligence tools in combination with a vast amount of training data. (I) I present a spatially continuous map of planted forest distribution across East Asia, produced by integrating multiple sources of planted and natural forest data. I found that China contributed 87% of the total planted forest areas in East Asia, most of which are located in the lowland tropical/subtropical regions and Sichuan Basin. I also estimated the dominant genus in each planted forest location. (II) I used continent-wide forest inventory data to compare the range shifts of forest types and their constituent tree species in North America in the past 50 years. I found that forest types shifted more than three times as fast as the average of their constituent tree species. This marked difference was attributable to a predominant positive covariance between tree species ranges and the change of species relative abundance. (III) Based on individual-level field surveys of trees and breeding birds across North America, I characterized New World wood-warbler (<i>Parulidae</i>) species richness and its potential drivers. I identified forest type as the most powerful predictor of New World wood-warbler species richness, which adds valuable evidence to the ongoing physiognomy versus composition debate among ornithologists. (IV) In the appendix, I utilized continent-wide forest inventory data from North America and South America and the combination of supervised and unsupervised machine learning algorithms to produce the first data-driven map of forest types in the Americas. I revealed the distribution of forest types, which are useful for cost-effective forest and biodiversity management and planning. Taken together, these studies provide insight into the dynamics of forest ecosystems at a large geographic scale and have implications for effective decision-making in conservation, management, and global restoration programs in the midst of ongoing global change.</p>