Les rétinites pigmentaires (RP) sont des pathologies rétiniennes cécitantes d'origine génétique caractérisées par une perte des photorécepteurs. Nous avons ciblé des formes de RP autosomique dominante consécutives à des mutations dans le gène du pigment visuel de la RHODOPSINE, du facteur d'épissage PRPF31 et du facteur de transcription impliqué dans le développement des photorécepteurs NR2E3. Les fibroblastes, issus de biopsies de peau de patients, ont été reprogrammés en cellules iPS par une technique dite non intégrative. Après stabilisation des cellules iPS, nous avons vérifié leur propriété de pluripotence et l'absence d'anomalies caryotypiques.Les cellules iPS porteuses d'une mutation sur le gène RHODOPSINE ont été différenciées dans le lignage des photorécepteurs. Nos résultats montrent que les photorécepteurs porteurs de la mutation P347L du le gène RHODOPSINE récapitulent la dégénérescence observée chez les patients.Nous montrons que les cellules de l'épithélium pigmentaire rétinien (EPR) dérivées de cellules iPS porteuses de la mutation Cys294X du gène PRPF31 présentent des problèmes d'adhésion cellulaire due à l'absence de lame basale. Leur activité de phagocytose est alors perturbée, suggérant qu'un dysfonctionnement de l'EPR pourrait être à la base de la RP causée par la mutation Cys294X du gène PRPF31. Les modèles développés nous ont permis de mieux comprendre les processus à la base de la pathogénèse de certaines RP. Ces modèles associés à des protocoles de criblage, pourraient permettre d'évaluer l'efficacité et la toxicité de nouvelles molécules pharmacologiques, mais également être utilisés pour valider des approches de thérapie génique. / Retinitis pigmentosa (RP) is an inherited retinal diseases characterized by a loss of photoreceptors. We focused specific forms of autosomal dominant RP with mutations in the rod visual pigment RHODOPSIN, the ubiquitous splicing factor PRPF31 and the transcription factor involved in the development of photoreceptors NR2E3. Fibroblasts from skin biopsies of patients were reprogrammed into iPS cells by a non-integrative approach. After stabilization of iPS cell lines, we verified their pluripotency property and the absence of karyotype abnormalities. Based on the retinal differentiation protocol, iPS cells carrying a mutation in the RHODOPSIN gene have been differentiated in the photoreceptor lineage. Our results showed that the photoreceptors expressing the mutated form of RHODOPSIN summarizing the process of degeneration observed in RP patients. We show that retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cells derived from iPS cells carrying a mutation in the PRPF31 gene lack basal membranes and have cell adhesion disorders. Consequently, their phagocytic activity is disturbed, suggesting that a malfunction of the RPE could be the primary step of the development of RP caused by mutation Cys294X in the PRPF31 gene. The models developed from specific-patient iPS cells have enabled us to better understand the processes underlying the pathogenesis of some RP. These models associated with screening protocols could be used to evaluate the efficacy and toxicity of new pharmacologic compounds but also used to validate new gene therapy approaches.

En dehors du cadre pathologique, la notion de temps est la base essentielle dans le processus de vieillissement de l’organisme et des systèmes associés. Ces derniers vont progressivement présenter un déclin de leur(s) fonction(s) où de nombreux mécanismes complexes vont intervenir à différents niveaux. Parmi les premiers constats proposés, le vieillissement est la conséquence d’un processus inéluctable, d’une succession d’agressions au niveau cellulaires qui pourraient être réparées voire évitées, ouvrant ainsi la voie à de futures études qui permettront à terme de proposer une explication détaillée, complète et claire de ce processus. Pour exemple, les travaux que nous avons menés tentent d’apporter un élément de réponse afin d’établir un lien entre sénescence et vieillissement, avec pour base de générer par reprogrammation cellulaire des cellules hiPSCs à partir de cellules issues de biopsies de patients jeunes et âgées, sénescentes ou prolifératives. Outre la caractérisation de leur état pluripotent comparable à celui des cellules souches embryonnaires, nous avons également mis en évidence après une différenciation spécifique en fibroblastes, que les caractéristiques cellulaires de ces fibroblastes présentaient un effacement des marques du vieillissement, signe d’une plasticité cellulaire possible au cours du vieillissement. A présent, étendre une telle étude au modèle tissulaire cutané par la mise en place de protocoles de différenciation dans le lignage épidermique permettra à l’avenir de mieux comprendre pour mieux appréhender les pathologiques associées au vieillissement, et ainsi pouvoir offrir aux patients une médecine appropriée et concrète. / Beside the pathological context, time is the essential basis in the aging process of the body and associated systems. These will gradually introduce a decline in function(s) where many complex mechanisms will take part at different levels. Among proposed findings, aging is the result of an inevitable process, a succession of cellular stress that could be prevented or repaired, opening the way for future studies that will eventually offer an explanation detailed, clear and complete which occur. For example, our work provide a response element to establish a link between senescence and aging, based on the generation of hiPSCs by cellular reprogramming of cells from biopsies of young, older, senescent and proliferating cells patients. Further characterization of their pluripotent state comparable to that of human embryonic stem cells, we have also showed by a specific differentiation into fibroblasts, that cellular characteristics of those fibroblasts had erased aging features. Next step, is to extend such study in cutaneous tissue model by the introduction of differentiation protocols in the epidermal lineage which will able us to better understand aging-associated diseases, and thus bring the ability to propose an appropriate and cocnrete medicine to aged patients.

L'épithélium pigmentaire rétinien (EPR) est une monocouche de cellules épithéliales pigmentées situés entre la rétine neurale et la membrane de Bruch et joue un rôle important dans le maintien et la survie des photorécepteurs. Des malformations, le dysfonctionnement ou bien la mort de l'EPR provoque la mort des photorécepteurs. Orthodenticle homéoboîte 2 (Otx2) est un facteur de transcription exprimé par l’EPR chez l’animal adulte joue un rôle important dans l’EPR puisque son inactivation chez les souris [CreERT2 : Otx2flox] provoque la dégénérescence des photorécepteurs. En outre, les patients présentant des mutations dans le gène OTX2 souffrent de microphtalmie ou d'anophtalmie et développent généralement des maladies oculaires comme la rétinopathie pigmentaire (RP) ou l’amaurose congénitale de Leber. La délivrance par un vecteur AAV d’OTX2 dans des cellules primaires de l’EPR de porc mais aussi de cellules pluripotentes humaines différenciés en EPR nous a permis d’identifier de nouveaux gènes régulés par OTX2 et un variant d’épissage connu OTX2L. Nous avons par ailleurs identifié un nouveau variant d’épissage OTX2S par analyse bioinformatique de banques d'ADNc normalisées de RPE de rat. OTX2S présente une délétion d’une partie de l’homéodomaine. Nous avons étudié l'expression de ce variant dans la rétine et étudié ses propriétés transcriptionnelles en utilisant le promoteur du gène de la tyrosinase couplé à un gène rapporteur dans les cellules HEK293 et les cellules de l’EPR primaires de porcs. OTX2S exerce un effet transdominant négatif uniquement dans les cellules de l’EPR. Son rôle physiologique doit encore être précisé car il semble participer à la transition épithélio-mésenchymateuses qui survient après décollement de la rétine, une pathologie rétinienne fréquente. L’analyse par immunoprécipitation de la chromatine sur des cellules de l'EPR de porc montre que la plupart de ces gènes sont des cibles directes d’OTX2.Notre laboratoire a identifié un facteur neuroprotecteur sécrétée par photorécepteurs à bâtonnets, Rod-derived Cone Viability Factor (RdCVF) qui est une stratégie prometteuse pour le traitement de RP lorsque les patients portent des mutations dans les gènes exprimés sélectivement photorécepteurs à bâtonnets, ce qui est le plus fréquemment rencontré. Cette stratégie thérapeutique ne s’appliquera pas aux RP causés par les mutations de gènes spécifiquement exprimés par l’EPR, comme le gène MERTK. Afin d'étudier le bénéfice potentiel du gène Otx2, nous avons utilisé un rongeur modèle de RP avec une mutation dans le gène Mertk, les rats RCS. Nous montrons que la transplantation d'EPR génétiquement modifié pour sur-exprimer Otx2, améliore la protection des photorécepteurs et la vision de l’animal. Une augmentation de la réponse électrophysiologique (ERG) des photorécepteurs (ERG) et la protection de la couche nucléaire externe représentant les photorécepteurs a pu être mise en évidence, cette dernière par tomographie par cohérence optique (OCT). Nos résultats indiquent que cette approche pourrait être applicable pour le traitement des maladies de la rétine avec le dysfonctionnement de l'EPR comme la RP ou la dégénérescence maculaire liée à l'âge. / Retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) is a monolayer of pigmented epithelial cells located between the neural retina and Bruch’s membrane and has an important function in the maintenance and survival of photoreceptor cells. Abnormalities, dysfunction and/or death of the RPE ultimately lead to death of retinal photoreceptors. Orthodenticle homeobox 2 (Otx2) is expressed in adult RPE and known to have an important role in RPE function since loss of function in Otx2flox/CreERT2 mice, leads to rapid photoreceptor degeneration. Furthermore, patients having mutations in this gene suffer from microphthalmia or anophthalmia and usually develop eye diseases as retinitis pigmentosa (RP) and Leber congenital amaurosis.Using ectopic expression involving AAV-mediated gene transfer in primary pig RPE cells and human induced pluripotent RPE derived cells, we have identified novel gene targets of Otx2 and Otx2L. The physiological role of Otx2S still needs to be addressed since it potentially participates in the epithelial to mesenchymal transition that occurs after retinal detachment, a frequent retinal pathology. Chromatin immunoprecipitation analysis using pig RPE cells shows that most of these genes are direct targets of OTX2.Our lab has previously identified a neuroprotective factor secreted by rod photoreceptors, Rod-derived Cone Viability Factor (RdCVF) which is a promising strategy for treatment of RP for patients with mutations in photoreceptor cells. This therapeutic strategy will not cover RP caused in genes specifically expressed by RPE, as for example MERTK gene.In order to study the potential benefit of Otx2 for gene-cell therapy, we used an animal model of RP with a mutation in the rdy (Mertk) gene, the RCS rats. Transplantation of genetically engineered RPE cells expressing Otx2, enhances the protection of photoreceptors and vision in this model. We demonstrate an improvement in electroretinograph (ERG) recordings and thickness of outer nuclear layer as measured in optical coherence tomography (OCT). Our findings indicate that this approach might be applicable treatment for retinal diseases with RPE dysfunction like RP and/or age related macular degeneration. Furthermore, using bioinformatic tools and gene screening of normalized cDNA libraries from rat RPE we identified Otx2S, a novel-splicing variant of Otx2 that lacks a part of a homeodomain. Otx2L, another splice variant of Otx2 with an insertion was also studied. We have shown the expression of this variant in NR and RPE and studied its transcriptional properties using gene reporter assay in HEK293 cells and pig primary RPE cells. In addition, we have found that Otx2S exerts a transdominant negative effect on tyrosinase promoter only in primary RPE cells.

Os transtornos do espectro autista (TEA) são um grupo de doenças neuropsiquiátricas caracterizadas por um prejuízo na capacidade de comunicação e de interação social e por padrões comportamentais estereotipados. Os TEA são geneticamente heterogêneos o que dificulta a identificação das alterações genéticas que estão contribuindo para estes transtornos. No presente estudo, selecionamos como uma primeira abordagem o estudo de translocações cromossômicas, buscando encontrar genes candidatos para posteriores estudos funcionais. No primeiro caso, uma translocação de novo balanceada envolvendo os cromossomos 2q11 e Xq24, não identificamos nenhum candidato funcional rompido pelos pontos de quebra. Detectamos ainda a presença de uma isodissomia materna do cromossomo 5 nesta paciente. Este resultado sugere que, possivelmente, tanto a translocação cromossômica quanto a isodissomia devem estar contribuindo para a etiologia do TEA nesta paciente, caracterizando este como um caso de efeito poligênico. Já o estudo da translocação de novo balanceada (3,11)(p21,q22) revelou que o gene TRPC6, um canal de cálcio envolvido no desenvolvimento de dendritos e sinapses excitatórias, encontrava-se rompido no cromossomo 11 deste paciente. As análises dos neurônios e células progenitoras neurais deste paciente obtidas através da técnica de reprogramação celular e o estudo global de expressão gênica sugerem fortemente que o rompimento do gene TRPC6 é o fator etiológico do TEA neste caso. Por fim, nós também realizamos um estudo de expressão gênica global de pacientes autistas idiopáticos e verificamos que os genes diferencialmente expressos nestes pacientes estão principalmente envolvidos na regulação da dinâmica do citoesqueleto, indicando que este pode ser o processo biológico comumente afetado nos pacientes autistas. Nosso trabalho mostra que os estudos citogenéticos são importantes para a identificação de genes candidatos para os TEA e reforça a hipótese de que estes transtornos são causados por diferentes variantes genéticas mas que levam ao comprometimento de um processo biológico comum. Acreditamos que o modelo de reprogramação celular contribuirá para o entendimento da implicação de tais processos na etiologia dos TEA. / Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are a group of neurodevelopmental diseases characterized by impairments in social and communicative skills and repetitive behaviors. The investigation of ASD causes is hampered by the genetic heterogeneity of these neurodevelopmental diseases. In the present study, we mapped the breakpoints associated to chromosomal translocations found in two autistic patients as a first screening approach, trying to identify single candidate genes that could be further investigated by functional analysis. In the first case, a de novo balanced translocation involving the chromosomes 2q11 and Xq24, we did not find any functionally known relevant gene disrupted by the breakpoints but, surprisingly, SNP-array data showed that the patient also presents a maternally inherited isodisomy on chromosome 5. In this case, is possible that ASD is caused by the combination of the molecular results caused by the translocation and the UPD on chromosome 5, which would characterize this case as an example of polygenic effects on ASD etiology. On the other hand, the study of a second case, a boy with a de novo balanced translocation (3;11)(p21;q22), revealed that TRPC6, a calcium channel involved in dendritic spine and excitatory synapse formation, was disrupted by the translocation on chromosome 11. Making use of cellular reprogramming to generate neurons and neuronal progenitor cells from this patient and expression analysis, we demonstrated that TRPC6 disruption can respond for the phenotype seen in this patient. Finally, we also performed a genome-wide expression analysis to investigate idiopathic autistic patients and we verified that ASD DEGs are mainly implicated in cytoskeleton dynamics, suggesting that the regulation of this cellular structure can be one of the common mechanisms of ASD etiology. Our work shows that cytogenetic studies are important for the identification of ASD candidate genes and reinforces the hypothesis that these disorders are caused by different genetic variants that are implicated in a common biological process. We believe that cellular reprogramming will contribute for the understanding of the implication of such biological processes in the etiology of ASD.

Em 2006, Takahashi e colaboradores demonstraram ser possível a obtenção de células-tronco pluripotentes por indução gênica (induced pluripotent stem cells ou iPSCs). Desde o surgimento desta tecnologia diversos modelos animais foram gerados, ampliando as possibilidades de seu uso na pesquisa, como por exemplo, na criação de modelos para doenças genéticas humanas como esclerose lateral amiotrófica, autismo, esquizofrenia, doença de Parkinson e Alzheimer, além do aprimoramento de características relevantes para produção animal. O modelo suíno é considerado vantajoso sobre os outros modelos animais principalmente pela criação já bem estabelecida e similaridades fisiológicas com os humanos. O intuito deste projeto foi reprogramar fibroblastos embrionários suínos através do sistema integrativo à iPSCs, para então diferenciá-las em células progenitoras neurais (neural progenitor cells, NPCs). Para isso, os fibroblastos foram transduzidos com vetores contendo sequencias humanas ou murinas dos genes OCT4, SOX2, c-Myc e KLF4 (hOSKM ou mOSKM) para formação das iPSCs. Estas foram caracterizadas quanto a morfologia, presença de fosfatase alcalina, a expressão dos genes exógenos e endógenos (OSKM, HS OCT4, OCT4, NANOG) através de imunofluorescência e RT-qPCR e formação de corpos embrióides. Então foram submetidas durante 14 dias ao meio de indução neural sob matriz extracelular comercial, gerando células potencialmente similares às NPCs. Estas foram caracterizadas morfologicamente, por imunofluorescência das proteínas NESTINA, BETA TUBULINA III e VIMENTINA, além da expressão de NESTINA e GFAP por RT-qPCR. Foram produzidas com sucesso 3 linhagens de iPSC em diferentes estágios de reprogramação e células positivas para todos os marcadores neurais testados. Os resultados apresentados deverão contribuir para a utilização do modelo suíno em futuros estudos voltados à medicina regenerativa e translacional. / In 2006, Takahashi and collaborators reported the induction into pluripotency of somatic cells (induced pluripotent stem cells, iPSCs). Since then, this technique has much been developed; many animal models have been created opening a new series of opportunities in research. They enable the creation of models for human genetic diseases, for example, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, autism, schizophrenia, Parkinson´s disease, Alzheimer´s disease and the enhancement of relevant characteristics in agriculture. The swine model is considered to present many advantages over others, including the well-known production and maintenance and physiological similarities to humans. The aim of this project was to reprogram porcine embryonic fibroblasts (pEF) into iPSCs using the lentiviral integrative system, followed by its differentiation into neural progenitor cells (NPCs). The cells were reprogrammed using vector containing either the human sequences (hOSKM) or the mouse sequences (mOSKM) for the OCT4, SOX2, c-Myc and KLF4 genes to form the iPSCs. They were characterized regarding the presence of the Alkaline Phosphatase enzyme, expression of exogenous and endogenous genes (OSKM, HS OCT4, OCT4, NANOG) through immunofluorescence and RT-qPCR, and embryoid body formation. Then, the cells were cultured with neural induction media for 14 days in commercial extracellular matrix, generating cells potentially like NPCs. Those were characterized regarding their morphology, immunofluorescence for NESTINA, BETA TUBULIN III and VIMENTINA and gene expression of NESTINA and GFAP. iPSCs were successfully reprogramed, generating 3 cell lines at different stages of reprograming and cells positive for all the neural markers tested were produced. The results shown will contribute to the use of the porcine model in future regenerative and translational medicine research.

Atualmente, a única alternativa viável para pacientes que possuem um quadro de doença hepática em estágio final é o transplante total ou parcial de fígado. Devido à crescente defasagem entre doadores disponíveis e pacientes em fila de espera, o desenvolvimento de abordagens de engenharia tecidual hepática (ETH) se tornou uma necessidade crescente. As células pluripotentes induzidas (iPS) são uma atraente alternativa para servirem como fonte celular para aplicações de engenharia tecidual por serem capazes de produzir todos os fenótipos celulares. Dentre as principais abordagens de EHT podemos citar as técnicas de bioimpressão 3D, organóides hepáticos e descelularização/recelularização. Este trabalho buscou avaliar a utilização de células iPS no desenvolvimento das três tecnologias descritas. Visando avaliar como imprimir um tecido hepático funcional com células iPS, testamos a impressão com hepatócitos dispersos em células únicas em comparação com a impressão de esferóiedes hepáticos. Os esferóides hepáticos mostraram maior viabilidade e funcionalidade hepática por preservarem o fenótipo epitelial ao longo do tempo. A composição de células não parenquimáticas derivadas de iPS ou células primárias para a formação de organóides hepáticos foi testada neste trabalho. Os resultados indicam que, utilizando células mesenquimais primárias e endoteliais derivadas de iPS, obtém-se uma maturação hepatica mais eficiênte devido a inibição das vias de sinalização TGF-β? e modulação da via Wnt. A recelularização do tecido aórtico descelularizado de ratos com células derivadas de iPS mostrou ser capaz de prover função hepática em cultura assistida por biorreator, porém os resultados indicam a necessidade de aprimoramento do protocolo de recelularização. Este trabalho comprovou a viabilidade da aplicação de células iPS nas abordagens EHT testadas e contribuiu para o desenvolvimento de alternativas terapêuticas viáveis para pacientes em fila de espera de transplante hepático / Currently, the only feasible alternative for patients with end-stage liver disease is total or partial liver transplantation. Due to the growing gap between available donors and patients in waiting list, the development new tissue engineering technologies have become a growing need. Induced pluripotent cells (iPS) are an attractive alternative to serve as cell source for tissue engineering applications due to their ability to differentiate into all cellular phenotypes. Among the main liver tissue engineering technologies, 3D bioprinting, hepatic organoids and decellularization/recellularization of biological matrixes have generated much expectation. Thus, this work aimed to evaluate the use of iPS cells in the development of the aforementioned technologies. In order to evaluate how to bioprint a functional liver tissue using iPS-derived cells, we tested the effect of printing a single cell dispersion of hepatocytes versus printing hepatic spheroids. Hepatic spheroids showed greater viability and liver function, due to preserved epithelial phenotype over time. The composition of non-parenchymal cells using iPS-derived cells or primary adult cells for hepatic organoid formation was tested. The results indicated that, using primary mesenchymal cells and iPS-derived endothelial cells, we obtained a more efficient hepatic maturation due to the inhibition of TGF-β? and modulation Wnt signaling pathway. Recellularization of rat aortic decellularized scaffold with iPS-derived cells displayed hepatic function over time in a bioreactor-assisted culture, but the results indicate the need for improvements in the recellularization protocol. In conclusion, this work demonstrated the feasibility of use of iPS-derived cells for liver tissue engineering approaches and contributed to the development of the investigated technologies in order to generate future therapeutic alternatives for patients in waiting list for liver transplantation

Os tecidos da polpa dentária e vibrissa são dois microambientes celulares que compartilham a mesma origem embrionária. Ambos possuem o seu nicho especifico pós-natal que abrigam células tronco adultas (CTA). O objetivo do trabalho foi investigar a expressão diferencial dos marcadores de células pluripotentes, mesenquimais e neuroepiteliais nas populações de células tronco isoladas das vibrissas (CTV) e polpa de dente (CTPD) de camundongos C57BL-6. Resultados obtidos no presente trabalho, utilizando o método de imunofluorescência, revelaram que as CTA de ambos tecidos expressam um amplo painel de marcadores de pluripotência (Oct4, Nanog e Sox2), mesenquimais (CD73, CD90 e CD105), hematopoiético (CD34), crista neural (CKit), neuronal (Nestina) e epitelial (Integrina α6, LGR5 e LGR6) e indica possível potencial destas células em diversas linhagens celulares. Desta forma, células isoladas destes tecidos podem ser interessantes para serem aplicadas em diversos tratamentos na medicina regenerativa. Portanto, o estudo comparativo da expressão de um amplo painel de marcadores de células tronco em CTV e CTPD pode vir a aumentar o leque de possibilidades de sua utilização na terapia celular. Com isso, as células isoladas de polpa dentária foram submetidas à análise de expressão de marcadores já citados e a outros conhecidamente positivos e específicos para os folículos piloso como Citoqueratina 15 (CK15), LRig1 e Blimp1. Foram realizados ensaios de imunofluorescência, imunohistoquímica, citometria de fluxo e RT-PCR. Os dados obtidos nos permitiram concluir, que as CTA isoladas das ambas as fontes são bastante semelhantes em relação ao seu imunofenótipo, porém as características da sua diferenciação precisam ainda ser analisadas. / The tissues of the dental pulp and vibrissae are two cellular microenvironments that share the same embryonic origin. Both have their postnatal specific niche that keep adult stem cells (ASC). The objective of this study was to investigate the differential expression of pluripotent markers, mesenchymal and neuroepithelial in populations of stem cells isolated from whiskers (WSC) and dental pulp (DPSC) C57BL-6 mice. Results obtained in this study, using immunofluorescence, revealed that the ASC both tissues express a broad panel of pluripotency markers (Oct4, Nanog and Sox2), mesenchymal cells (CD73, CD90 and CD105), hematopoietic (CD34), crest neural (cKIT), neuronal (Nestin) and epithelial (Integrin α6, LGR5 and LGR6) and indicates possible potential of these cells in several cell lines. Thus, isolated cells of these tissues may be interesting for application in various treatments in regenerative medicine. Therefore, the comparative study of the expression of a broad panel of stem cell markers in WSC and DPSC could increase the range of possibilities for their use in cell therapy. Thus, the isolated cells were subjected to the dental pulp marker expression analysis cited above and others known to be positive and specific to hair follicles as Cytokeratin 15 (CK15), and LRig1 Blimp1. Immunofluorescence assays were performed, immunohistochemistry, flow cytometry and RT-PCR. The data allowed us to conclude that the ASC isolated from both sources are quite similar with respect to their immunophenotype, but the characteristics of differentiation remain to be analyzed.

A reprogramação nuclear de uma célula somática a um estado embrionário tem diversas aplicações, como pesquisas básicas na biologia do desenvolvimento, terapia celular, melhoramento genético em animais de produção e conservação de espécies. As principais técnicas utilizadas para a reprogramação nuclear são a transferência nuclear de células somáticas (TNCS) e a geração de células tronco pluripotente induzidas (iPS). Muitos trabalhos têm mostrado uma baixa eficiência no processo de reprogramação nuclear nas duas técnicas, além disso, modificações epigenéticas tem sido apontada como a principal barreira para uma reprogramação nuclear eficiente. Por esse motivo, medidas como a utilização de células menos diferenciadas e/ou alteração do perfil epigenético das células somáticas podem aumentar a eficiência destas técnicas. Por isso, o objetivo deste trabalho foi investigar a influência de marcas epigenéticas em células bovinas utilizadas na reprogramação nuclear mediada por TNCS ou superexpressão de genes relacionados a pluripotêcia (iPS). Para isso, utilizamos 3 abordagens. Primeiro, analisamos marcações epigenéticas relacionadas ao desenvolvimento embrionário e pluripotência (H3K9me2, H3K9me3, H3K9ac, 5mC e 5hmC) em diferentes tipos celulares, analisamos a expressão gênica de genes responsáveis por essas marcações em células de diferentes tecidos (ex. células tronco mesenquimais (MSC) e fibroblastos) e as utilizamos como doadoras de núcleo na TNCS. Na segunda e a terceira abordagem, utilizamos células com menores níveis de H3K9me2 para a geração de iPS e na TNCS, respectivamente. Além disso, por se mostrar eficiente na TNCS, analisamos o efeito da sincronização do ciclo celular por privação de soro fetal bovino (SFB) na geração de células iPS. Com o intuito de diminuir os níveis de H3K9me2, as células foram tratadas com UNC0638, um inibidor especifico das metiltransferases de histona G9a/GLP. Nossos resultados do primeiro experimento mostraram que as MSC podem ser utilizadas como doadoras de núcleo na TNCS, no entanto, mesmo com algumas diferenças na expressão gênica em relação aos fibroblastos, a produção de blastocistos não foi diferente entre as duas células. No segundo experimento, as células privadas de SFB geraram mais colônias que as células controle, enquanto que as células tratadas não apresentaram diferença. Por último, as células tratadas com o UNC0638 apresentaram um menor nível de metilação no DNA em zigotos em relação às células controle. Os resultados encontrados neste trabalho podem contribuir para o melhor entendimento dos mecanismos epigenéticos envolvidos na reprogramação nuclear de bovinos / Nuclear reprogramming of somatic cells to embryonic state has several aplications, such as basic research on developmental biology, cell therapy, genetic improvement in livestock animals and preservation of endangered species. The principal techniques utilized to achieve nuclear reprogramming are Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer (SCNT) and induced pluripotency. Several works has reported low efficiency rates of nuclear reprogramming when these techniques are used to reprogram somatic cells. Moreover, epigenetic modifications acquired during development act as epigenetic barrier to the complete reprogramming process. For this reason, strategies such as use of less differentiated cells and/or modification of epigenetic profile of somatic cells might increase the efficiency these techniques. The objective of this work was investigate the influence of epigenetic marks in bovine cells utilized on nuclear reprogramming experiments mediated by SCNT or induced pluripotency. To investigate it, we used three approaches. First, we analyzed the epigenetic marks related to the embryonic development and pluripotency (e.g H3K9me2, H3K9me3, H3K9ac, 5mC and 5hmC), gene expression of genes involved in these epigenetic marks in different tissues (i.e. mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) and fibroblasts) and their use as nuclear donor cells on SCNT procedure. Regarding the second and the third approach, we utilized cells with reduced levels of H3K9me2 to generate iPS cells and cloned embryos, respectively. Furthermore, since serum starvation has been demonstrated increase SCNT developmental rates, we assessed the effect of cell cycle synchronization mediated by serum starvation on nuclear reprogramming using iPS cells. Aiming decrease the levels of H3K9me2, cells were treated with UNC0638, a chemical probe that works as a specific inhibitor of the histone methyltransferases G9a and its counterpartner GLP. Our results showed that MSC are suitable to be used as nuclear donors on SCNT procedures, however, in spite of differences on gene expression comparing with fibroblasts, the embryonic developmental rates were not improved. On the second experiment, cells privated of fetal calf serum produced more iPS cells colonies than control cells, whereas cells treated with UNC did not show differences when compared with untreated cells. Lastly, UNC treated donor cells treated produced cloned zygotes with lower levels of DNA methylation compared to zygotes derivated from untreated cells. The results presented here will contribute to the better understanding of the epigenetic mechanisms involved on bovine nuclear reprogramming

Première cause de baisse d'acuité visuelle dans les pays industrialisés, la dégénérescence maculaire liée l'âge (DMLA) est une pathologie de la rétine touchant principalement les personnes après 55 ans. Elle est caractérisée par une dégénérescence de la zone maculaire de la rétine et par la formation de drusens. Il existe deux formes de la maladie : la forme exsudative et la forme atrophique. Dans notre étude, nous nous sommes focalisés sur la DMLA atrophique, actuellement sans traitement curatif et qui correspond à environ 50% des cas cliniques en Europe. Malgré de nombreuses recherches, les causes de la DMLA restent encore mal comprises même si des facteurs environnementaux (sénescence, accumulation de lipofuscine, stress oxydatif) et génétiques sont probablement combinés. Selon l'hypothèse étiopathogénique, le dysfonctionnement des cellules de l'épithélium pigmenté de la rétine (EPR) est au centre des événements physiopathologiques de la DMLA. A partir de sujets sains et de patients atteints de la DMLA atrophique, nous avons obtenu des cellules de l'EPR dérivées de cellules souches pluripotentes induites et développé un modèle cellulaire humain utile pour la compréhension des mécanismes physiopathologiques de la DMLA. Ainsi, l'étude morphologique et fonctionnelle de ces deux populations de cellules a souligné un phénotype particulier des cellules de l'EPR provenant de patients atteints pas la DMLA en condition basale et en milieu pro-oxydant. Ce modèle cellulaire pourra nous permettre d'approfondir nos connaissances sur les mécanismes amenant au développement de la DMLA et pourra aussi être utilisé pour le screening des molécules au cours des étapes précliniques. / First cause of irreversible visual dysfunction in industrialized countries, age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a retinal disease affecting people after 55 years old. AMD is characterized by the macular degeneration of retina and by formation of drusen. There exist two forms of the disease: the exudative and the atrophic forms. In our study, we focused only on the atrophic one, corresponding to approximately 50% of the clinical cases in Europe, that still today without curative therapy. Despite many researches, AMD's etiology remains unclear even if environmental and genetics factors would be involved. According to the etiopatogenic hypothesis, RPE cells dysfunction has a central role in the physiopathological events leading to AMD. From healthy subjects and patients affected by atrophic AMD, we obtained RPE cells derived from induced pluripotent stem cells and developed a useful human cellular model for the understanding of AMD mechanisms. Indeed, the morphological and functional study of the two types of cells populations underlined a particular phenotype for the RPE cells derived from AMD patients. This cellular model will allow us to have a better understanding of mechanisms leading to AMD and will also be used to screen therapeutic molecules before clinical studies.

O estudo de mutações genéticas como causa das cardiomiopatias teve início com a descoberta de mutações em proteínas sarcoméricas que levavam à Cardiomiopatia Hipertrófica, desde então, alterações em diversos genes, de proteínas contráteis ou não, foram descobertas e listadas como a responsável pelo desenvolvimento de diferentes cardiomiopatias. Estudar o efeito destas mutações nos cardiomiócitos destes pacientes permanecia um desafio devido ao difícil acesso às células cardíacas. Em 2007, a técnica de reprogramação de células somáticas em células-tronco pluripotentes foi descoberta. Pelo fato das células-tronco pluripotentes serem capazes de ser diferenciadas em cardiomiócitos, surgiu-se a possibilidade de se estudar essas células de indivíduos portadores das mutações genéticas. Esta tese teve como objetivo a criação de um modelo celular para estudar a Cardiomiopatia Hipertrófica causada por mutações genéticas. Inicialmente foi estabelecido um protocolo de reprogramação celular para se estabelecer linhagens celulares das células-tronco induzidas de um paciente com mutação no gene MYH7. Tendo as células caracterizadas, elas foram diferenciadas em cardiomiócitos através de um protocolo adaptado de protocolos de diferenciação direta em cardiomiócitos. Os cardiomiócitos gerados apresentaram características moleculares e funcionais semelhantes à cardiomiócitos primários humanos e foi visualizado, através de microscopia eletrônica de transmissão, que os cardiomiócitos do paciente com alteração genética possuíam grande proporção de sarcômeros desorganizados em comparação a cardiomiócitos de indivíduos saudáveis. Em conclusão, o modelo celular desenvolvido sugere ser possível o estudo do efeito de mutações genéticas em Cardiomiopatia Hipertrófica. / The study of genetic mutations as the cause of cardiomyopathies initiates with the discovery of mutations in sarcomeric proteins genes that lead to Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy. Since then, mutations in several genes, coding to sarcomeric proteins or not, were discovered and listed as the reason to the cardiomyopathies. To study the effect of these mutations was a challenge due the difficulty to accesses cardiac cells. In 2007, the technique of reprogramming somatic cells into pluripotent stem cells was discovered. The fact that the pluripotent stem cells are capable of differentiating into cardiomyocytes opened the opportunity to study these cells from individuals with genetic mutations. This thesis aimed to create a cellular model to study Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy caused by genetic mutations. Initially we established a cell reprogramming protocol to establish induced stem cells lines from a patient with mutation in MYH7 gene. Having characterized the cells, they were differentiated into cardiomyocytes using an adapted protocol from direct differentiation protocols. Cardiomyocytes generated showed molecular and functional characteristics similar to human primary cardiomyocytes and were visualized by means of transmission electron microscopy. The patient\'s cardiomyocytes had a large proportion of disorganized sarcomeres compared to cardiomyocytes from healthy individuals. In conclusion, the cell model developed suggests that it is possible to study the effect of genetic mutation in Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy using induced pluripotent stem cells derived cardiomyocytes.