La notion de contradiction en linguistique a souvent été rejetée en marge des recherches en langues. On considère généralement que la parole contradictoire ou les structures oppositives ne peuvent servir logiquement l’efficacité requise par la théorie traditionnelle de la communication. Pour cette raison, la linguistique traditionnelle tend à considérer ces structures comme artificielles, servant des fins stylistiques ou rhétoriques. Or, nous pouvons observer à l’oral nombre d’énoncés présentant des marques de la contradiction nous amenant à examiner non pas des structures préparées mais bien spontanées, servant des fins communicatives et ayant un effet pragmatique réel dans la communication. Nous montrons que la contradiction s’actualise bel et bien en discours et que l’aporie logique qu’elle manifeste à première vuemet en scène une singularité énonciative. Le locuteur, en effet, met en scène la contradiction moyennant des conditions d’énonciation particulières (polyphonie, négation, connecteurs). Des énoncés présentant des marqueurs de la contradiction sont autant d’indices qui permettent de prendre en compte cette notion et de l’analyser sous une lumière nouvelle. C’est à partir d’un corpus établi sur des enregistrements de français oral spontané que nous mettons au jour les formes morphologiques et syntaxiques qui traduisent la mise en scène de la contradiction à l’oral ainsi que les effets pragmatiques qu’elles engendrent, afin de parvenir à dresser un système possible du fonctionnement de cette structure / The notion of contradiction in linguistics has often been rejected to the margins of language research. We generally consider that contradictory speech or structures of opposition cannot logically serve the effectiveness required by the traditional theories of communication. For this reason, traditional linguistics tends to consider these structures as artificial, serving stylistic or rhetorical goals. Yet, we can observe, in oral speech, numerous utterances presenting marks of contradiction. This brings us to examine not the prepared structures but the spontaneous ones, serving communicative goals and having a real pragmatic effect within communication. This study will demonstrate that such utterances do exist in speech, and that the logical aporia they express at first sight reveals in fact a distinctive enunciative posture. We will showhow the utterer stages this posture through particular conditions of enunciation (polyphony, negation, markers). We will finally analyse the pragmatic effect of the structure of contradiction in and on discourse.The utterances presenting pragmatic connectors are of as many indications which allow us to take into account these notions and to analyse them under a new light. It is from a corpus established on the recordings of spontaneous oral conversations that we attempt to bring up the morphological forms and the syntax which conveys oral contradiction along with the pragmatic effects which it creates, in order to draw up a possible system of the functioning of these structures

Nous nous proposons d’examiner comment les manifestations linguistiques du dialogisme et de la polyphonie observées sur un plan microstructural dans le théâtre vinavérien régissent, sur le plan macrostructural, la poétique dramatique de l’auteur. Celle-ci se focalise d’une part sur l’articulation entre l’espace privé des personnages et le champ politique agonistique et d’autre part, sur la place du personnage et de l’art dans le monde de l’entreprise et dans la société de consommation. En effet, l’esthétique théâtrale vinavérienne et l’ensemble des réflexions de l’auteur lui-même sur les fonctions de l’écriture dramatique aujourd’hui et sur ses rapports au réel nous semblent intimement liés au caractère dialogique du discours des personnages reposant sur les stéréotypes, les clichés, les sentences, les lieux communs et sur les différentes formes de l’hétérogénéité énonciative. Sur le plan polyphonique, l’agencement du dialogisme dans le dialogue vinavérien tire parti des techniques formelles du montage, de la choralité, de l’intertextualité et de la correspondance des arts, formes qui produisent des décharges ironiques et esthétiques porteuses de signifiances multiples préservant l’ouverture de l’œuvre. Pour circonscrire les aspects du dialogisme et de la polyphonie, nous faisons appel à des notions et concepts empruntés aussi bien aux branches de la linguistique [analyse du discours, énonciation et pragmatique] qu’à l’ancienne et à la nouvelle rhétorique. / The study examines how the linguistic forms of dialogism and polyphony observed in Vinaver’s plays, on a microstructural level, give rise to the dramatic poetic art of the author. This poetic art focuses on the one hand on the relationship between the private territory of the characters and the political field of the agôn, and on the other hand, on the place and role of individuals and of art itself in the world of enterprise and in consumer society. Indeed, the theatrical aesthetics of Vinaver and the reflections of the author concerning the functions of writing drama today, and its relationship to reality seem closely related to the dialogical aspects of the character’s discourse that vary within a wide range including the use of stereotypes, clichés, aphorisms, commonplaces and argumentative topoï as well as the different forms of reported discourse or enunciative heterogeneity. On the polyphonic level, the arrangement of dialogic manifestations in the dialogue of Vinaver’s plays leads to the use of various technical forms such as the montage, the choir, the intertextuality and the trans-artistic aesthetic, creating ironical and aesthetic effects that carry multiple significations while preserving an openness in the meaning of the work. In order to describe the aspects of dialogism and polyphony, we will use notions and concepts adopted from the branches of linguistics [discourse analysis, enunciation and linguistic pragmatics] as well as from Ancient and modern rhetoric.

The aim of this master's thesis is to describe certain aspects of the matter of la non-prise en charge (in English, the addressor's non-commitment to the truth of the proposition). The theoretical part defines someone else's opinion. At the same time it systemizes the prototypical linguistic instuments that are used to express someone else's opinion both in Czech and in French. The material for the empirical analysis was language corpora of the Czech National Corpus - in particular the corpus Intercorp Czech, French version 9, monolingual representative corpus SYN 2015 and the french journalistic corpus L'Est Républicain. The genre-oriented collections of the Intercorp corpus helped discover the distribution of corresponding linguistic instruments of expressing someone else's opinion through out text types, such as: fiction, journalism, legal texts and film subtitles. The other part related the matter of the addressor's non-commitment to the epistemic modality. Based on concrete examples issued from the language corpora the thesis interpeted the degree of distance of the speaker from the content of his statement and with it the increasing epistemic modality. In conclusion it is outlined that the possible reasons that can lead the speaker to supress his/her own "voice" and to refer to a different...

Fictional uncertainty is a complex technique that utilizes literary devices such as changing points of view, multiple themes, and fluid characterization. Fictional uncertainty enables an author to create a layered narrative based upon multiple perspectives and a deep look into the characters' individual personalities and inner lives. Every work of fiction involves some amount of uncertainty, but in modern Iranian literature there was a distinct transition in the late twentieth century from greater realism to greater uncertainty. Indeed, the mode of fictional uncertainty is central to Iranian authors' modernist project, focused as it is on the psychological aspects of the charterers' lives and narrative aesthetics. Fiction prior to the 1979 Islamic Revolution usually focused on sociological matters, but post-revolution modernist fiction has been distinguished by emphasis on the deeper realities of characters' individual lives. Fictional uncertainty is the most significant literary technique that authors have used to portray the complexity of Iranians' post-revolutionary experiences. It has provided a tool for a number of Iranian writers to oppose the dominant social, cultural, historical, and religious certainties of post-revolutionary Iranian society. Shahriar Mandanipour, one of the greatest users of this technique, has extended the boundaries of Persian fiction through his experimental fiction. Although Mandanipour does count some traditional realist fictions among his works, his efforts in applying fictional uncertainty make him unique and exemplary. Under the influence of Russian Formalism, Mandanipour mostly uses his content as a pretext for formalist fictional experiments. Mandanipour's focus on "literariness" is the basis of his interest in the technique of fictional uncertainty and his understanding of the essentiality of "form" in fictional works. Fictional uncertainty is not always guided by one particular ideology or discourse, but rather by the ways in which devices such as changing points of view, multiple themes, fluid characters, and unstable settings function in the text. In the case of post-revolutionary Persian literature, fictional uncertainty has also provided authors a way to investigate and recreate the complex dynamics of revolutionary and post-revolutionary life, which is to some extent ultimately related to ideology and discourse. A close reading of Mandanipour's short stories and novels will show that his application of fictional uncertainty is related to the Bakhtinian concepts of "polyphony, dialogue, unfinalizability" and becoming, which are embodied in the plots, characterizations, and points of view in his works. Using these fictional devices, Mandanipour portrays an atomized Iran full of violence, despair, fear, infidelity, revenge, and loneliness. However, his works go far beyond Iran as a historical nation-state and discuss a number of universal subjects like love, death, loneliness, and revenge by application of the technique of fictional uncertainty.

Les modes de composition et de narration de l’histoire ont été profondément bouleversés dans la première moitié du XIXe siècle français. Le récit historique doit alors répondre à de nouveaux enjeux et façonner une historiographie nouvelle qui devra conduire à l’établissement d’une discipline scientifique moderne : l’histoire. Les écrivains de cette période conçoivent par conséquent un récit historique dans lequel sont inscrites les nouvelles modalités démocratiques du rapport à la cité politique : il ne s’agit plus seulement pour l’historien d’entretenir de l’histoire, mais de faire entendre les voix de l’histoire, celles des contemporains tout autant que celles du passé, en les inscrivant dans un régime communicationnel. Autrement dit, il ne s’agit pas seulement de les faire entendre, mais aussi de procéder à un vaste système d’interactions des différentes temporalités : à l’image d’un vaste parlement, les temps communiquent et tiennent la narration pour donner à lire une histoire polyphonique dans laquelle l’instance narrative et auctoriale qui assurait autrefois le rythme et la cohérence du récit se démultiplie, et dans laquelle l’histoire se fragilise pour mieux se faire entendre. Le récit historique de la première moitié du siècle s’institue ainsi comme un vaste laboratoire dans lequel les historiens expérimentent les nouveaux modes d’expression d’une histoire démocratique. / The history’s narrative has been deeply shaked during the first half of the nineteenth century. The historical narrative have to meet new challenges and make a new historiography to institute a modern and a scientific discipline : history. Therefore writers of this period form an historical narrative which includes new democratic procedures for the management of politics : historian have not only to talk about history, but have also to get the voices of history heard, past’s voices as well as contemporary’s. History becomes a communication. In other words, voices don’t only have to get heard : they have to interact each others through time. Like a parliament, times communicate each others and lead the narrative to make a polyphonic history, in which the narrative and auctorial instance – which, in the past, led the rhythm and the coherence of the narrative – stretch themselves. Therefore history weaks itself to become more listenable. The history’s narrative of the first half of the nineteenth century becomes thus a wide laboratory for historians to experiment new narrative devices of a democratic history.

Polyphony and homophony differ not only by their structural, but also by their expressive characteristics.

The thesis about Prague as the leading musical center of the Czech Kingdom is generally accepted in musicological discourse. Likewise, the key role of professional Prague writing workshops in spreading monophonic singing is not questioned. In the distribution of vocal polyphony are many uncertainties. The only known workshop that also created primarily polyphonic manuscripts is the New Town workshop of Jan Kantor Starý († 1582). The number of other surviving manuscripts indicates that there were more such workshops in Prague at the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries. The object of the master thesis is therefore to reveal another possible workshop based on detailed paleographic and codicological research of a selected group of polyphonic sources, which demonstrably contain common writing hands. Keywords musical iconography, codicology, vocal polyphony, Prague

This dissertation argues that the interpretive framework from which Fontane's Effi Briest is commonly approached limits discussion to metropolitan core culture and fails to address Fontane's path-breaking accomplishment. After outlining limitations of some prominent approaches to Effi Briest in chapter one, my next four chapters explore alternative reading strategies that instead situate the novel in the imperial context of the new German state inflected by transnational relations and problematize the tendency to see Germany as a space territorially and culturally homogenized and stable. Chapter two reads the novel through Foucault's notion of heterotopia to demonstrate Fontane's heterotopic strategies as a counter-model to the monolithic mapping of novelistic space. In chapters three and four I use Bakhtin's chronotopic strategies to show how Fontane "fuses together" fictional time and space into a productive force for depicting society in motion and change. I demonstrate how this "spatial turn" breaks with the traditional time-paradigm and opens up space for polyphony and dialogism. Chapter five discusses Fontane's Wanderungen contrapuntally to draw attention to Fontane's counter-strategies, which break with the master narrative in favor of small-scale ones, to show their relevance for Effi Briest. The rest of my dissertation focuses on the novel's Eastern Pomeranian/Kessin-based chapters. Chapter six addresses the spatial arrangement of Hinterpommern from the viewpoint of the ruling elites. Chapter seven treats Kessin as a hybridized "third space" that both resists the dominant and represents an unstable and ambiguous alternative to paralyzing dichotomies of opposites. I also look into Hinterpommern as a contested space between Germans and Poles - and their competing claims over the Kasubians, inhabitants of the strategically important Baltic area. In chapter eight I show how the Polish margins impinge on Fontane's fictional representation of Prussia and are articulated in both the content and structure of Effi Briest. In chapter nine I discuss Fontane's representation of Polish/Slavic-hyphenated characters in terms of their different responses/resistance to anti-Slav/Polish prejudices and measures. In revealing the creative and transformative powers of margins this dissertation models alternative ways of approaching canonical writers and contributes to the transnationalization of German studies in particular and cultural studies in general.

Inscrite dans le champ de l’analyse du discours en interaction, notre thèse propose une étude des formes et des fonctions des discours rapportés (DR) dans le cadre des six débats télévisés de l’entre-deux-tours des présidentielles ayant eu lieu en France entre 1974 et 2012. Il y est question de déterminer avec précision à quoi sert le DR — dont on pourrait penser qu’il n’est pas véritablement constitutif du genre — dans ces interactions où chacun des candidats poursuit les objectifs particuliers de s’autopromouvoir et de délégitimer son adversaire.L’analyse détaillée des quelques quatre cents extraits recensés dans le corpus montre que les DR répondent, selon leur lieu d’apparition dans l’échange en cours, la nature de leur source (l’adversaire, un tiers extérieur au débat ou le locuteur lui-même) et leur teneur propositionnelle, à trois différentes visées qualifiables d’autopromotionnelle, de défensive et de polémique — visées auxquelles contribuent en outre parfois leur mode de mise en scène para- et non verbale (mouvements de la voix, mais aussi mimiques, postures, regards et gestuelles déployés par le locuteur conjointement au DR).Répondant ainsi à une intuition de départ, ce travail met à jour le fait que non seulement les discours rapportés sont mis au service des objectifs spécifiques des candidats lors des débats, mais encore qu’ils occupent, selon la nature de leur source, des fonctions différentes mais complémentaires (fonctions relatives à la dynamique des échanges et à l’élaboration d’un discours en confrontation, fonctions strictement argumentatives ou encore fonctions relatives à la finalité des débats en eux-mêmes). / Grounded in the framework of the discourse-in-interaction analysis, this work analyses the forms and functions of reported speech within the six second-round debates of the French presidential election taking place in France between 1974 and 2012. Its object is to precisely determine the purpose of reported speech (which one might think that it is not truly constitutive of the genre) within these interactions in which candidates’main aims are self-promotion and the opponent depreciation.By analysing in details the almost four hundreds extracts recorded in the corpus, our work shows that reported speeches aim, depending on their place within the exchanges, their source (the opponent, a third party or the speaker) and their propositional content, three different purposes we can consider as self-promotion, defence and argument — these purposes can be furthermore supported by some para- and non-verbal elements (voice movements, facial expression, posture, eye expression and gesture deployed at the same time).Following an initial intuition, this study reveals that not only reported speeches serve the candidates’ main goals during debates, but also, depending on their source, they assure different and complementary functions (functions serving the dynamic within the exchanges and the construction of a speech in confrontation, functions exclusively argumentative, or also functions relating to the debates global purpose).

Notre corpus, formé des six pièces de théâtre de Nathalie Sarraute, recèle un dédoublement des types énonciatifs dans les répliques des personnages, dédoublement qui est latent et qui est dû essentiellement à la neutralisation des oppositions de personnes et de temps. Le passage d’une couche locutoire à l’autre n’est pas marqué dans la plupart des cas ; sinon, il ne s’agit pas du marquage usuel. Ainsi est complexifiée la tâche de déchiffrage de tout récepteur extratextuel. Ces œuvres sont aussi éminemment polyphoniques tant au niveau énonciatif qu’au niveau sémantique, dans le sens où des voix multiples s’y enchevêtrent et des instances de prises de position y sont mises en scène. Les lecteurs, auditeurs ou spectateurs devraient, par conséquent, identifier les sources énonciatives et les instances « autres » pour les distinguer des voix originelles et pour reconnaître le rôle de cet « ailleurs ». Même des paroles sont rapportées, surtout aux styles direct et direct libre, multipliant ainsi les strates locutoires et les locuteurs. D’autres voix sont aussi perceptibles au théâtre, à savoir l’auctoriale à travers les didascalies et d’autres éléments des textes sarrautiens, et celles des praticiens du théâtre et du metteur en scène à travers la représentation / The corpus is formed of six plays of Nathalie Sarraute; it hides a duplication of enunciation types in the characters’ dialogue. This duplication is latent due to personal pronouns and verb tenses’ neutralization. The transition from an enunciation layer to another is not marked at all or not traditionally marked. Therefore, deciphering will be more complicated to any reader, listener or spectator. These works of art are also highly polyphonic in terms of enunciation as in semantics, as several voices are intertwined and as the characters resort to authorities of point of view. Thus, readers, listeners and spectators should identify enunciation sources and “other” authorities of point of view to distinguish them from the original voices and to know what their contribution to the plays is. Even some speeches are reported and, predominately repeated as direct speech. Therefore, enunciation layers and enunciators are multiplied. We can also notice other voices in plays, as the author’s through what is called “stage directions” and other parts of the texts, the practitioners’ and the director’s through the performance.