Aquifers in the arid alluvial basins of the southwestern U.S. are recharged predominantly by infiltration from streams within the basins and by water entering along the margins of the basins from surrounding mountains (mountain -front recharge). The Tucson Basin of Southeastern Arizona is such a basin. The Santa Catalina Mountains form the northern boundary of this basin and receive more than twice as much precipitation (about 70 cm/yr) as the basin does (about 30 cm/yr). In this study environmental isotopes were employed to investigate the migration of precipitation basinward through joints and fractures. Water samples were obtained from springs in the Santa Catalina Mountains. Stable isotopes and thermonuclear bomb-produced tritium enabled qualitative characterizations of flow paths and flow velocities. Stable isotopic measurements fail to display a direct altitude effect. Tritium values indicate that although a few springs discharge pre-bomb water, most springs discharge waters from the 1960's or later.

"Mémoire présenté à la Faculté des Études supérieures En vue de l'obtention du grade de Maîtrise en droit des affaires (LL.M.)" / La création du GATT en 1947 par les pays occidentaux a consacré un nouvel ordre commercial international. Son but consistait à faciliter les échanges commerciaux et poursuivre le développement économique. Pour cela, la réglementation du GATT visait surtout à l'application d'une politique commerciale qui consiste à démanteler les obstacles aux échanges, proscrire toute discrimination commerciale entre les pays membres et entre les marchandises importées et les marchandises locales. En ce sens l'article 1er du GATT de 1947 (devenu OMC en 1995) pose le principe cardinal du traitement de la nation la plus favorisée, c'est-à-dire un traitement égal à tous les pays participant au GATT. Mais l'arrivée des nouveaux pays indépendants dans les années 1960 a changé la nature juridique du GATT parce qu'au point de vue économique il y avait trop de disparités entre les pays. Il y a eu donc la nécessité de tenir compte de la réalité économique de ces pays, de faire en sorte qu'ils puissent rattraper le retard dans le processus de développement, et de pouvoir aussi équilibrer les échanges commerciaux. L'adoption en 1964 de la Partie IV du GATT, intitulée commerce et développement, consacre la non réciprocité commerciale en faveur des pays en développement, et officialise par la même occasion une dualité des normes parce que les deux catégories de parties contractantes appliquent différemment les principes du Gatt. Il devient alors pertinent d'étudier cette asymétrie juridique qui devait compenser l'inégalité de développement des pays insuffisamment développés. Selon le credo des libéraux de l'époque, les PED peuvent se développer économiquement par des échanges commerciaux. Mais, en dépit des traitements préférentiels qui sont accordés aux pays en développement, ils n'arrivent pas à se développer, leur balance commerciale est déficitaire, leur productivité est faible. En faisant une étude globale sur la situation des pays en développement, nous traiterons en particulier le cas du Niger et du Bénin. Cette recherche sert: d'abord à voir les effets du libéralisme économique sur les pays économiquement faibles, ensuite susciter l'intérêt à étudier le développement économique des pays en dehors d'une dualité des normes qui n'apporte pas de résultats escomptés. / The creation of GATT in 1947 by western countries has set a new international order trade that would facilitate trade exchanges and moves forward economic development around the world. For that reasbn GATT regulations aimed above aIl at the application of a trade policy that consists of getting rid of the hindrances to the exchanges, and proscribe discriminatory trade exchanges between countries and imported and exported local merchandizes. Indeed article 1 in GATT regulations in 1947 (became WTO in 1995) poses the cardinal mIe of treatment of the nation which is more privileged, that is an equal treatment for aIl countries that are members of GATT. But the arrivaI of the new independent countries III 1960 has changed the juridical nature of GATT because economically the gap was too huge between the countries. So it is important to take into account the economic reality of the poor countries to set a strategic policy that will help them out. With that policy they will be able to catch up with the new era of development and trade exchanges around the world will be fair. The adoption in 1964 of the Part 4 of GATT regulations entitled trade and development favours the non-reciprocity trade to developing countriesand makes official at the same occasion a duality of norms because the two categories of members put into the application the mIes ofGATT differently. This research aims at studying this asymmetrical politic that would compensate the inequality of the development of poor countries, and would also provide them an economic development by the means of trade exchanges. ln spite of the preferential treatments given to the developing countries, theyare not yet making any progress because their trade balance is deficient, and their productivity is worthless. In doing a broader research on the situation of developing countries, we will focus particularly on the situations of Niger and Benin. This research would serve first to analyse the effects of the economic liberalism on the poor countries; secondly create the interest to study the economic development of the countries out of the asymmetrical politic that do not bring any attempted results.

No description available.

The disposal of waste from agricultural activities has been recognised as a source of environmental contamination by endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs). The New Zealand dairy industry produces a large volume of dairy farm effluent, which contains EDCs in the form of estrogens. Most of this dairy farm effluent is applied onto the land for disposal. Groundwater and soil contamination by estrogens following waste application on the land have been reported overseas, but our understanding of the processes and factors governing the fate of estrogens in the soil is poor. Therefore the main goal of the present study was to better understand the fate and transport of estrogens, in particular 17β-estradiol (E2) and estrone (E1) in soil. In order to quantify E1 and E2 in drainage water and soil samples, chemical analysis by gas-chromatography mass-spectrometry (GC-MS) was carried out. This included sample extraction, sample clean-up through silica gel and gel permeation chromatography, and sample extract derivatisation prior to analysis. In order to develop a reliable method to extract estrogens from soil, research was conducted to optimise E1 and E2 extraction conditions by adjusting the number of sonication and shaking events, as well as the volume and type of solvent. Among five solvents and solvent mixtures tested, the best recovery on spiked and aged soil was obtained using an isopropanol/water (1:1) mix. A microcosm experiment was carried out to determine the dissipation rates of E2 and E1, at 8°C and at field capacity, in the Templeton soil sampled at two different depths (5-10 cm and 30-35 cm). The dissipation rates decreased with time and half-life values of 0.6-0.8 d for E1 and 0.3-0.4 d for E2 were found for the two depths studied. A field transport experiment was also carried out in winter, over three months, by applying dairy farm effluent spiked with estrogens onto undisturbed Templeton soil lysimeters (50 cm in diameter and 70 cm deep). The hormones were applied in dairy farm effluent at 120 mg m⁻² for E2 and 137 mg m⁻² for E1. The results of the transport experiment showed that in the presence of preferential/macropore flow pathways 0.3-0.7% of E2 and 8-13% of E1 was recovered in the leachate at the bottom of the lysimeters after 3 months, and 1-7% of the recovered E2 and 3-54% of the recovered E1 was leached within 2 days of application. These results suggest that leaching of estrogens via preferential/macropore flow pathways is the greatest concern for groundwater contamination. In the absence of preferential/macropore flow pathways, a significant amount (> 99.94%) of both hormones dissipated in the top 70 cm of soil, due to sorption and rapid biodegradation. Surprisingly, in all cases, estrogen breakthrough occurred before that of an inert tracer (bromide). This could not be explained by the advection-dispersion transport of estrogens, nor by their presence as antecedent concentrations in the soil. It was therefore suggested that colloidal enhanced transport of estrogens was responsible for the earlier breakthrough of estrogens and caused the leaching of a fraction of the applied estrogens to a soil depth of 70 cm. A two-phase model, adapted from a state-space mixing cell model, was built to describe the observed estrogen transport processes under transient flow. The model takes into account 3 transport processes namely, advection-dispersion, preferential/macropore flow and colloidal enhanced transport. This model was able to successfully describe the estrogen transport observed from the lysimeters.

Worldwide there is considerable concern over the effects of human activities on the quantity and quality of freshwater. Measurement of infiltration behaviour will be important for improving freshwater management. This study identifies that New Zealand has a sporadic history of measuring soil water movement attributes on a limited number of soil types, although the current practical demand should be large for management of irrigation, dairy farm effluent disposal, as well as municipal / domestic waste- and storm-water disposal. Previous research has demonstrated that infiltration behaviour is governed by the interplay between numerous mechanisms including hydrophobicity and preferential flow, the latter being an important mechanism of contaminant leaching for many NZ soils. Future characterisation will need to recognise the dynamic nature of these interactions, and be able to reliably characterise the key infiltration mechanisms. Since macropores are responsible for preferential flow, it is critical that infiltration studies use a representative sample of the macropore network. The aim of this project was to study the mechanisms governing the infiltration behaviour of a layered soil in large (50 x 70 cm) monolith lysimeters, where the connectivity of the macropore network remains undisturbed. Four lysimeters of the Gorge silt loam were collected, a structured soil with four distinct layers. On each lysimeter there were four separate infiltration experiments, with water applied under suctions of 0, 0.5, 1, and 1.5 kPa by a custom-built tension infiltrometer. Each lysimeter was instrumented with 30 tensiometers, located in arrays at the layer boundaries. There was also a field experiment using ponded dye infiltration to visually define preferential flowpaths. Analysis of dye patterns, temporal variability in soil matric potential (Ψm), and solute breakthrough curves all show that preferential flow is an important infiltration mechanism. Preferential flowpaths were activated when Ψm was above -1.5 kPa. During saturated infiltration, at least 97% of drainage was through the ‘mobile’ pore volume of the lysimeter (θm), estimated among the lysimeters at 5.4 – 8.7 % of the lysimeter volume. Early-time infiltration behaviour did not show the classical square-root of time behaviour, indicating sorptivity was not the governing mechanism. This was consistent across the four lysimeters, and during infiltration under different surface imposed suctions. The most likely mechanism restricting sorptivity is weak hydrophobicity, which appears to restrict infiltration for the first 5 – 10 mm of infiltration. Overall, the Gorge soil’s early-time infiltration behaviour is governed by the dynamic interaction between sorptivity, hydrophobicity, the network of air-filled pores, preferential flow and air encapsulation. Long-time infiltration behaviour was intimately linked to the temporal dynamics of Ψm, which was in turn controlled by preferential flow and soil layer interactions. Preferential flowpaths created strong inter-layer connectivity by allowing an irregular wetting front to reach lower layers within 2 – 15 mm of infiltration. Thereafter, layer interactions dominate infiltration for long-time periods, as Ψm in soil layers with different K(Ψm) relationships self-adjusts to try to maintain a constant Darcy velocity. An important finding was that Ψm rarely attained the value set by the tension infiltrometer during unsaturated infiltration. The results show that ‘true’ steady-state infiltration is unlikely to occur in layered soils. A quasi-steady state was identified once the whole column had fully wet and layer interactions had settled to where Ψm changes occurred in unison through each soil layer. Quasi-steady state was difficult to identify from just the cumulative infiltration curve, but more robustly identified as when infiltration matched drainage, and Ψm measurements showed each layer had a stable hydraulic gradient. I conclude that the in-situ hydraulic conductivity, K(Ψm), of individual soil layers can be accurately and meaningfully determined from lysimeter-scale infiltration experiments. My results show that K(Ψm) is different for each soil layer, and that differences are consistent among the four lysimeters. Under saturated flow the subsoil had the lowest conductivity, and was the restricting layer. Most interestingly this pattern reversed during unsaturated flow. As Ψm decreased below -0.5 to -1 kPa, the subsoil was markedly more conductive, and the topsoil layers became the restricting layers. All four soil layers demonstrate a sharp decline in K(Ψm) as Ψm decreases, with a break in slope at ~ -1 kPa indicating the dual-permeability nature of all layers.

No description available.

La création du GATT en 1947 par les pays occidentaux a consacré un nouvel ordre commercial international. Son but consistait à faciliter les échanges commerciaux et poursuivre le développement économique. Pour cela, la réglementation du GATT visait surtout à l'application d'une politique commerciale qui consiste à démanteler les obstacles aux échanges, proscrire toute discrimination commerciale entre les pays membres et entre les marchandises importées et les marchandises locales. En ce sens l'article 1er du GATT de 1947 (devenu OMC en 1995) pose le principe cardinal du traitement de la nation la plus favorisée, c'est-à-dire un traitement égal à tous les pays participant au GATT. Mais l'arrivée des nouveaux pays indépendants dans les années 1960 a changé la nature juridique du GATT parce qu'au point de vue économique il y avait trop de disparités entre les pays. Il y a eu donc la nécessité de tenir compte de la réalité économique de ces pays, de faire en sorte qu'ils puissent rattraper le retard dans le processus de développement, et de pouvoir aussi équilibrer les échanges commerciaux. L'adoption en 1964 de la Partie IV du GATT, intitulée commerce et développement, consacre la non réciprocité commerciale en faveur des pays en développement, et officialise par la même occasion une dualité des normes parce que les deux catégories de parties contractantes appliquent différemment les principes du Gatt. Il devient alors pertinent d'étudier cette asymétrie juridique qui devait compenser l'inégalité de développement des pays insuffisamment développés. Selon le credo des libéraux de l'époque, les PED peuvent se développer économiquement par des échanges commerciaux. Mais, en dépit des traitements préférentiels qui sont accordés aux pays en développement, ils n'arrivent pas à se développer, leur balance commerciale est déficitaire, leur productivité est faible. En faisant une étude globale sur la situation des pays en développement, nous traiterons en particulier le cas du Niger et du Bénin. Cette recherche sert: d'abord à voir les effets du libéralisme économique sur les pays économiquement faibles, ensuite susciter l'intérêt à étudier le développement économique des pays en dehors d'une dualité des normes qui n'apporte pas de résultats escomptés. / The creation of GATT in 1947 by western countries has set a new international order trade that would facilitate trade exchanges and moves forward economic development around the world. For that reasbn GATT regulations aimed above aIl at the application of a trade policy that consists of getting rid of the hindrances to the exchanges, and proscribe discriminatory trade exchanges between countries and imported and exported local merchandizes. Indeed article 1 in GATT regulations in 1947 (became WTO in 1995) poses the cardinal mIe of treatment of the nation which is more privileged, that is an equal treatment for aIl countries that are members of GATT. But the arrivaI of the new independent countries III 1960 has changed the juridical nature of GATT because economically the gap was too huge between the countries. So it is important to take into account the economic reality of the poor countries to set a strategic policy that will help them out. With that policy they will be able to catch up with the new era of development and trade exchanges around the world will be fair. The adoption in 1964 of the Part 4 of GATT regulations entitled trade and development favours the non-reciprocity trade to developing countriesand makes official at the same occasion a duality of norms because the two categories of members put into the application the mIes ofGATT differently. This research aims at studying this asymmetrical politic that would compensate the inequality of the development of poor countries, and would also provide them an economic development by the means of trade exchanges. ln spite of the preferential treatments given to the developing countries, theyare not yet making any progress because their trade balance is deficient, and their productivity is worthless. In doing a broader research on the situation of developing countries, we will focus particularly on the situations of Niger and Benin. This research would serve first to analyse the effects of the economic liberalism on the poor countries; secondly create the interest to study the economic development of the countries out of the asymmetrical politic that do not bring any attempted results. / "Mémoire présenté à la Faculté des Études supérieures En vue de l'obtention du grade de Maîtrise en droit des affaires (LL.M.)"

No description available.

Cette thèse comporte trois essais en macroéconomie en économie ouverte et commerce international. Je considère tour à tour les questions suivantes: sous quelles conditions est-il optimal pour un pays de former une union économique? (essai 1); l'augmentation de la dispersion transversale des avoirs extérieurs nets des pays est-elle compatible avec une dispersion relativement stable des taux d'investissement? (essai 2); le risque de perte de marché à l'exportation du fait de l'existence des zones de commerce préférentiel joue t-il un rôle dans la décision des pays exclus de négocier des accords commerciaux à leur tour? (essai 3). Le premier essai examine les conditions d'optimalité d'une union économique. Il s'intéresse à une motivation particulière: le partage du risque lié aux fluctuations du revenu. Dans la situation initiale, les pays ont très peu d'opportunités pour partager le risque à cause des frictions: les marchés financiers internationaux sont incomplets et il n'y pas de mécanisme pour faire respecter les contrats de crédit entre pays. Dans ce contexte, une union économique apparait comme un arrangement qui pallie à ces frictions entre les pays membres seulement. Cependant, l'union dans son ensemble continue de faire face à ces frictions lorsqu'elle échange avec le reste du monde. L'arbitrage clé dans le modèle est le suivant. D'un coté, l'intégration économique permet un meilleur partage du risque entre pays membres et la possibilité pour le partenaire pauvre d'utiliser la ligne de crédit du partenaire riche en cas de besoin. De l'autre coté, l'union peut faire face à une limite de crédit plus restrictive parce que résilier la dette extérieure est moins coûteux pour les membres l'union. De plus, le fait que le partenaire pauvre peut utiliser la limite de crédit du partenaire riche génère une externalité négative pour ce dernier qui se retrouve plus fréquemment contraint au niveau des marchés internationaux des capitaux. En conformité avec les faits observés sur l'intégration économique, le modèle prédit que les unions économiques sont relativement peu fréquentes, sont plus susceptibles d'être créées parmi des pays homogènes, et généralement riches. Le deuxième essai porte sur la dispersion des avoirs extérieurs nets et la relation avec la dispersion des taux d'investissement. Au cours des récentes décennies, la dispersion croissante des déséquilibres extérieurs et les niveaux record atteints par certaines grandes économies ont reçu une attention considérable. On pourrait attribuer ce phénomène à une réduction des barrières aux mouvements internationaux des capitaux. Mais dans ce cas, il est légitime de s'attendre à une augmentation de la dispersion au niveau des taux d'investissement; ceci, parce que le financement des besoins en investissements constitue une raison fondamentale pour laquelle les pays échangent les capitaux. Les données indiquent cependant que la dispersion des taux d'investissement est restée relativement stable au cours des récentes décennies. Pour réconcilier ces faits, je construis un modèle d'équilibre général dynamique et stochastique où les pays sont hétérogènes en raison des chocs idiosyncratiques à leurs niveaux de productivité totale des facteurs. Au niveau des marchés internationaux des capitaux, le menu des actifs disponibles est restreint à une obligation sans risque et il n'y a pas de mécanisme pour faire respecter les contrats de crédit entre pays. A tout moment, un pays peut choisir de résilier sa dette extérieure sous peine d'exclusion financière et d'un coût direct. Ce coût direct reflète les canaux autres que l'exclusion financière à travers lesquels les pays en défaut sont pénalisés. Lorsque le modèle est calibré pour reproduire l'évolution de la dispersion transversale des avoirs extérieurs nets, il produit une dispersion relativement stable des taux d'investissement. La raison principale est que les incitations que les pays ont à investir sont liées à la productivité. Avec l'intégration financière, même si les opportunités d'emprunt se sont multipliées, les incitations à investir n'ont pas beaucoup changé. Ce qui permet de générer une dispersion accrue de la position des avoirs extérieurs nets des pays avec une dispersion relativement stable des taux d'investissement. Le troisième essai analyse un aspect de l'interdépendance dans la formation des accords commerciaux préférentiels: j'examine empiriquement si le risque de diversion des exportations en faveur des pays membres des zones de commerce préférentiel est un facteur déterminant dans la décision des pays exclus de ces accords de négocier un accord à leur tour. Je construis un indicateur qui mesure le potentiel de diversion des exportations auquel font face les pays et estime un modèle probit de formation des zones de commerce préférentiel créées entre 1961 et 2005. Les résultats confirment que les pays confrontés à un plus grand potentiel de détournement des échanges sont plus susceptibles de former une zone de commerce préférentiel à leur tour. / This thesis consists of three essays in open economic macroeconomics and international trade. I consider the following questions: Which countries find it individually optimal to form an economic union? (essay 1); is the rising cross-sectional dispersion in net foreign asset positions consistent with a relatively stable dispersion in investment rates? (essay 2); is the risk of trade diversion due to existing preferential trade areas an important factor in excluded countries decision to seek one? (essay 3). The first essay studies the individual optimality of economic integration. It emphasizes the risk-sharing benefits of economic integration. In an initial situation, countries have very limited possibilities to share idiosyncratic endowment risk because of financial frictions: international financial markets are incomplete and contracts not enforceable. A union is an arrangement that solves both the market incompleteness and the lack of enforcement problems among member countries. The union as a whole still faces these frictions when trading in the world economy. The model emphasizes the following key trade-off. There are two benefits from economic integration: better risk-sharing among member countries and the possibility for poor partners to use the rich partners' credit lines. The costs are the following: borrowing limits become tighter because defaulting on international debt becomes less costly for union partners. Since poor partners may benefit from the rich partner's credit limit, this generates a negative externality: rich partners will find themselves more often borrowing-constrained in a union compared to standing alone in the world economy. Consistently with evidence on economic integration, the model predicts that economic unions occur relatively infrequently and are more likely to emerge among homogeneous and rich countries. The rising dispersion of external imbalances over the recent decades and the record-high levels reached by some major economies has received considerable attention during the recent years. The second essay focuses on one of such imbalances: the net foreign asset positions (NFA). One can view this rising dispersion as a consequence of the reduction in barriers to capital flows. But in such case, one would expect the dispersion in investment rates to go up as well because one fundamental reason countries borrow and lend internationally is to finance their investments needs. Instead, the dispersion in investment rates was relatively stable. To explain this puzzling fact, I undertake a quantitative analysis of the global dispersion of net foreign asset positions and investment rates. The framework is an integrated model of world economy where countries differences arise from idiosyncratic shocks to their total factor productivity levels. International capital flows is restricted: the menu of assets traded is exogenously restricted to a risk-free bond, and international lending contracts are not legally enforceable. At any time, a country may choose to repudiate its foreign debt subject to financial exclusion and an output cost. The output cost captures margins other than financial exclusion through which defaulting countries can be punished. When calibrated to match the evolution of the cross-sectional dispersion in net foreign asset positions, the model produces a relatively stable dispersion in investment rates. The reason is because the incentives to invest are related to the productivity, not to the borrowing and lending opportunities. Although the opportunities to borrow and lend internationally have increased, the incentives to invest have not changed much, thereby generating a large cross-sectional dispersion in NFA positions with a relatively stable dispersion in investment rates. The third essay investigates empirically whether the risk of trade diversion faced by countries excluded from preferential trade areas (PTA) is determinant in their decision to seek a preferential trade agreement. Using the trade complementarity index, I derive a measure of the potential of trade diversion and estimate a probit model of the formation of PTAs between 1961 and 2005. The results show that country-pairs facing a larger potential of trade diversion are more likely to form a PTA in the future.

This dissertation is a study of the role of Gustavo Gutiérrez as a public pastor in the 1980s and 1990s in Peru. His collaboration with the Lima newspaper La República from the early 1980s gave him a figurative pulpit from which he addressed the Peruvian public on specific occasions. The fundamental question in the dissertation is: How did Gutiérrez respond as pastor to the Peruvian public and how did he express his pastoral concern? The study analyses materials that has not been object for previous studies, such as theological essays and articles in newspapers and periodicals. With inspiration from discourse analysis four discourses have been identified in Gutiérrez’ texts.  These discourses interact and through this interaction Gutiérrez formulates his pastoral message. For the socio-political analysis two political discourses are used, the radical and the liberal. The radical political discourse deals with justice for the poor and liberation from oppression as a condition for peace and harmony in society, which are in focus for the liberal political discourse. With the Catholic theological discourse Gutiérrez sets the socio-political analysis in relation to Catholic doctrine and through the pastoral theological discourse he gives reason for hope and inspiration to action. As an advocate for a theology of life, Gutiérrez urges those who read and listen to him to break the pattern of death and opt for this theology of life. In his role as pastor, Gutiérrez speaks words of comfort and encouragement but also words of admonition and warning to those in power who have the capacity to transform society.