Elevers problemlösningsprocess påverkas enligt tidigare forskning av såväl rent kognitiva resurser som motivation, uppfattningar och emotioner. Processen kan också ses innefatta problemformulering, vilket i tidigare studier visat sig främja såväl djupare matematisk förståelse som positiva attityder gentemot matematikämnet. Denna studie syftar till att undersöka elevers upplevelse av arbetet med matematiska problem för att synliggöra vilka aspekter, såväl kognitiva som affektiva, som påverkar problemlösningsprocessen. Studien har en kvalitativ ansats där datainsamlingen bestått av två fokusgruppsintervjuer, en observation samt skriftliga elevlösningar. Populationen i urvalet består av sex elever från en klass i årskurs nio. Studiens resultat visar att elever relaterar tillräckliga kunskaper och färdigheter, samarbete samt självbestämmande till en positiv upplevelse av problemlösning. Resultatet visar också att eleverna är beroende av såväl kognitiva resurser och övergripande kontroll som positiva affekter och motivation i en lyckad problemlösningsprocess. Studien visar också att problemformulering kan fungera som ett inslag i matematikundervisningen vilket ökar känslan av självbestämmande samt mildrar negativa emotioner. Slutligen diskuteras mångfalden av aspekter som påverkar elevers motivation i matematik samt hur problemformulering kan användas som inslag i undervisningen för att mildra matematikängslan i samband med problemlösning.

Syftet med denna studie är att försöka finna och beskriva lärares syn på problemformuleringar inom matematik och specifikt hur lärarna anser att det inverkar på elevers förmåga att redovisa sitt kunnande vid skriftliga matematikprov. Studien görs på gymnasienivån. I studien har intervjuer med lärare genomförts för att erhålla data och därefter har en tematisk analys gjorts för att kunna beskriva synen på problemformuleringar som framkommit i lärares utsagor. Det empiriska underlaget bygger på totalt fem intervjuer med gymnasielärare. Trots det ringa antalet framkommer ändå en klar bild av lärares uppfattningar och beskrivningar av problemformuleringar som så och vilken betydelse de har för elevers förmåga att utföra beräkningar. Lärarna upplever att formuleringarna har stor betydelse för i hur stor omfattning elever klarar av att lösa eller tolka uppgifter, dvs har en tydlig resultatpåverkan. Lärare beskriver att formuleringarna påverkar eleverna. Som lärare försöker man variera formuleringar medvetet och beskriver hur det är en del av ämnets kultur att också variera problemformuleringar. Ingen av de intervjuade lärarna försöker medvetet förklara för elever speciellt hur formuleringar kan tydas, alltså det medtas inte i undervisningen. Lärarna kan inte påminna sig att det ingick i deras lärarutbildning att dels formulera problem, dels reflektera kring formuleringars betydelse. Det framkom även att lärarna upplever en ambivalens i förhållande till att variera problemformuleringar, t.ex. upplever man att variationer av formuleringar påverkar svagare elever mer negativt än högpresterande elever, samt att lärarna verkar anse att man bör variera men undervisar inte specifikt om formuleringar som så. / The purpose of this study is to find and describe teachers’ perceptions of the wording of problems in mathematics tests and specifically how it affects pupil’s ability to present their knowledge at high school level.Interviews were conducted to obtain data for a thematic analysis in order to describe the perceptions of the teachers in these interviews. The empirical data consists of five interviews with high school teachers. Despite the small data set a clear picture is revealed of views and descriptions as such and their implications on students’ ability to show knowledge. The teachers perceive that that the wording has an important impact on the students’ ability to interpret or solve problems, i.e. has clear influence on results. They describe that it influences students. They will vary wordings in tests on purpose and perceive that it is a part of the subject’s culture to do so. None of the interviewees try conscientiously to specifically explain for the students how wording should be understood, thus not teached. None of the teachers can recall wording of problems being a part of their educations to become teacher (not included in education of teachers). It emerged as well a perception of ambivalence, e.g. it impacts more weaker students, one is supposed to vary but does not teach how to interpret.

Problemformulering är en arbetsmetod som är tätt kopplad till problemlösning, men trots att matematiker och forskare under lång tid betonat dess betydelse, har det inte fått tillräckligt med uppmärksamhet inom forskning. Användningen av problemformulering kan resultera i förbättrad förståelse av matematik, ökat självförmåga, främjande av matematisk kreativitet och en positiv inställning till ämnet, samt ökad motivation. Denna studie har granskat användningen av problemformulering i undervisningen för elever i årskurs 4-6 genom att besvara följande frågor: "Hur motiveras användningen av problemformulering i matematikundervisning för elever i årskurs 4-6?" och "Vilka aspekter av problemformulering kan enligt tidigare forskning vara utmanande för genomförandet?". Det är en systematisk litteraturstudie, vilket innebär att den bygger på tidigare forskning som samlats in metodiskt och väldokumenterat, för att sedan analyserats och diskuterats. Resultaten av studien visar att vetenskapligt stöd för användningen av problemformulering i årskurs 4-6 finns och stödjer tidigare forskning som visar att problemformulering förbättrar elevers förståelse av matematik, färdigheter, kreativitet, självförmåga, motivation och attityder gentemot ämnet. Resultaten pekar också på vissa utmaningar som lärare och elever kan ställas inför vid genomförandet, främst på grund av att arbetsmetoden avviker från den mer traditionella undervisningen samt brist på erfarenhet inom detta område / Mathematical problem posing is a method closely linked to problem-solving, but despite mathematicians and researchers emphasizing its importance for a long time, it has not received sufficient attention in research. The use of mathematical problem-posing can result in an improved understanding of mathematics, increased self-efficacy, improvement of mathematical creativity, a positive attitude towards the subject, and increased motivation. This study has examined the use of mathematical problem-posing in the education of students in grades 4-6 by addressing the following questions: "How is the use of mathematical problem-posing in mathematics education for students in grades 4-6 motivated?" and "What aspects of mathematical problem-posing can, according to previous research, be challenging for implementation?". It is a systematic literature study, meaning that it is based on previous research that has been systematically and well-documented in its collection, analysis, and discussion. The results of the study show that there is scientific support for the use of mathematical problem-posing in grades 4-6 and support previous research indicating that mathematical problem-posing improves students' understanding of mathematics, skills, creativity, self-efficacy, motivation, and attitudes towards the subject. The results also point to certain challenges that teachers and students may face in implementation, primarily due to its deviation from more traditional teaching methods and the lack of experience in this area.

The subject of this bachelor thesis in criminology has been local crimeprevention. More specifically the matter of comparing Sölvesborgsmunicipality and the national governments policy regarding local crimeprevention. In 2023 a law regarding municipalities responsibility to institute alocal crime prevention strategy was implemented.The passing of this law led to the subject of this thesis, when municipalitiesbecame obligated to conduct local crime prevention the need to study how theimplemented systems differ from the official national documents arose.To conduct the study a WPR or What’s the problem represented to be approachwas used to study and discern the underlying problem formulation andrepresentation in the respective policy documents. In addition to that Sahlinsfour models of crime prevention and Luhmann ́s theory of autopoietic systemsprovided a theoretical framework to the thesis.The study found that there is a discernible difference between the municipaland national level regarding the representation of crime prevention. Thenational policy documents focus heavily on the improvements to crimepreventions that can be made through the effectivization of institutions. Incontrast to this the analysis of the local level showed that there is a focus oninformal and formal social control through mainly the visibility of authorityfigures such as police, security guards and the municipal hosts of security.

This thesis presents the first Swedish empirical evidence on how teachers employ a dynamic mathematical software when teaching mathematics in upper secondary school. The study examines: a) How teachers formulate mathematical problems? b) How they use the experience the students have gained? and c) What use they make of the software’s potential? These questions are examined through classroom observations followed up by discussions with the teachers. The study comprises three teachers and shows that they have very different mathematical experiences and teaching skills. A questionnaire was sent to the teachers prior to the classroom visits to collect relevant background information; e.g., the teachers were asked to describe their teacher training, their view of mathematics and of how a dynamic software could contribute to their teaching. The results show that the teachers’ ability to pose thought-provoking openended problems is the most important factor as it significantly influences what the students learn. The way a mathematical problem is formulated could, in conjunction with a dynamic software, actually limit the students’ achievement. However, this study confirms that it could also provide an opportunity for students to discover new mathematical relations, draw conclusions, generalise and formulate hypotheses. This could in turn lead to an in formally proving a mathematical relation. A conclusion of the study is that to be successful, teachers need a good mathematical background with a firm knowledge base and an understanding of the software’s potential, but they also need the skill to formulate open-ended problems that will enable their students to work successfully with a dynamic mathematical software.

By asking “What’s the problem?” this thesis addresses the crucial relationship between how strategic decision-makers formulate organizational problems and how the relevant actors attempt to solve these problems. This thesis holds that the creation of strategy can be conceived of as a decision-making process in which the strategists find, formulate and attempt to solve problems by choosing a set of means to reduce the perceived gap between the current state and the desired state of the organization. The thesis particularly explores and postulates what is refered to as the means-end fallacy in which end-problems are treated as means-problems. In effect the decision-makers take the ends of the organization for granted and only ask “How can we fix it?” instead of critically examining the purpose of the organization by asking “What should we fix and why?” The purpose of this thesis is twofold. First, it is to explore the dysfunctional consequences of the means-end fallacy in organizational decision-making and creation of strategy. Secondly, it is to illuminate the implications of applying the problem-formulation perspective in the creation of organizational strategies. To achieve these purposes the problem-formulation phenomenon is explored in five appended papers. Paper I discusses the paradox of profitability and responsibility and the means-end fallacy in the context of strategic theory and practice. Papers II, III and IV explore the relationship between how a problem is formulated and how different actors attempt to solve it. This is done with a comprehensive case study of the substance-abuse problem and the different organizational strategies that are implemented to resolve it. Paper V offers a concrete discussion of how inappropriate formulations of organizational problems undermine the intended ends, particularly with regard to the paradox of profitability and responsibility. This thesis argues that the strategic decision-makers need both to be more problem-oriented; that they should balance the different dimensions of the problem; and, thus, that they should recognize that decision-making is an art of balance. Moreover, it suggests that the problem-formulation perspective can contribute with an insight into the black box of strategy creation, and that this can be achieved by looking back or rewinding from the organization’s strategy to the initial formulation of the organization’s problems. As a mirror image it suggests that strategic decision-makers can avoid the means-end fallacy by forwarding from an appropriate formulation of the problem to a balanced strategy.