Much is assumed about the professionalisation of managers, but the subject has been little studied within the social sciences. Did it take place and if so, how did it happen? Previous studies suggest that the managers in Swedish industries were professionalised after the Second World War, without, however, thoroughly investigating this claim. To be able to study the professionalisation process of managers, this thesis argues that it is necessary to look at both the ideals and the practice of management. This thesis constructs two different management ideals: the patriarchal ideal and the professional ideal, which are then joined together in a model. The model is then used to interpret the management behaviour of Swedish managers in 1910-1945. The results of this thesis show that the professionalisation process of managers was not a strict process forward. The ideals were relatively easy to change from a patriarchal ideal to a professional ideal. But the practice of management could be patriarchal as well as professional, depending on the situation and the context. One explanation for this is that the managers could not always live up to the professional ideal. Instead they reverted to the system of personal trust and its loyalties in line with the patriarchal ideal. Therefore the professionalisation process of managers was not as successful as it might have been.

Le contexte socio-économique marqué par la division du travail favorise les fermetures de marché. La professionnalisation représente un type de fermetures par lequel un groupe occupationnel cherche à obtenir et à maintenir le contrôle de l'environnement interne et externe de son activité économique afin d'éviter que ce contrôle s'exerce exclusivement de l'extérieur. En maintenant le contrôle sur un champ de compétence ou sur une fermeture de marché, un groupe assure la maîtrise de sa survie professionnelle et socio-économique. La recherche de fermeture de marché est une explication possible des considérations sousjacentes à l'intérêt d'un groupe occupationnel pour la professionnalisation. Cette considération ne compromet pas nécessairement la mission de protection du public qui doit guider les ordres professionnels dans l'exercice de leurs pouvoirs de contrôle. En effet, le processus de légitimation favorise au contraire le respect de cette mission. Par ce processus, un groupe occupationnel maintient non seulement la reconnaissance sociale de sa compétence et de son utilité mais également l'exercice des pouvoirs de contrôle qui lui sont octroyés. La légitimité ainsi acquise permet de maintenir le degré de crédibilité nécessaire à la survie du groupe. Cette explication de l'intérêt pour la professionnalisation a été élaborée à partir des critères de trois approches sociologiques qui sont le fonctionnalisme, l'interactionnisme et le conflictualisme. Ces approches ont servi à examiner en premier lieu le Code des professions et en second lieu les stratégies et les arguments de deux acteurs sociaux qui ont un point de vue opposé sur ce phénomène social de l'intérêt pour la professionnalisation. / The social economical context characterized by the division of labour favoured the development of c1osed labour markets. The formation of professions is part of this social phenomenon. By controlling internaI and external factors of its economic activity, an occupational group avoids or at least influences in its favour the control exercised by others. It also protects its field of competence from other groups and can even extend it into other spheres. Exercising control over its activity secures professional, social and economical status. This may explain why the formation of professions is so popular. However, such considerations do not necessarily compromise public protection. On the contrary, the legitimatization of an occupational group ensures public protection. A group needs to acquire and maintain not only social recognition of its competence and usefulness but also to legitimise its control. Such legitimacy is required to maintain professional, social and economical status. This explanation to the social phenomenon of formation of professions is based on three sociological views, namely functionalism, interactionism and conflictualism. From these perspectives, the Profèssional Code is first considered. It is followed by the study of the strategies and the arguments of two social groups who hold different views on the formation of professions. / "Mémoire présenté à la Faculté des études supérieures en vue de l'obtention du grade de Maîtrise en droit (L.L.M.)". Ce mémoire a été accepté à l'unanimité et classé parmi les 10% des mémoires de la discipline. Commentaires du jury : "Contribution aux connaissances. Recherche fouillée. Approche intéressante".

Cette recherche traite des préoccupations de professionnalisation des infirmiers en psychiatrie et santé mentale. Elle s’inscrit dans un contexte commandité via sa mise en œuvre en convention industrielle de formation par la recherche (CIFRE). Commanditaire de ce travail, l’établissement public de santé mentale Lille-Métropole a développé un dispositif dit de « professionnalisation et tutorat » pour compléter une formation initiale jugée insuffisante après que le diplôme d’infirmier de secteur psychiatrique, et la formation y conduisant, aient été supprimés en 1992. La portée de ce dispositif est analysée à trois échelles, à partir d’une démarche compréhensive. D’abord, celle de son inscription dans l’évolution historico-culturelle du groupe professionnel. Ensuite, celle des acteurs mobilisés pour son fonctionnement. Enfin, celui de son appropriation par les néo-infirmiers destinataires de ce travail éducatif institué par le dispositif. Il est montré que le dispositif exprime une intention de (re)professionnalisation du groupe social par l’institution d’une relation entre travail et formation. Celle-ci est mobilisée comme axe analytique permettant d’examiner comment, dans l’expérience des néo-infirmiers, se construit le rapport au métier. La question de la violence en psychiatrie est aussi examinée à l’aune de cette relation pour étudier la manière dont elle est prise en compte dans les pratiques infirmières. Enfin, le caractère commandité de cette recherche la positionne dans un système d’attentes à plusieurs niveaux. Le chercheur est alors conduit à penser son implication et lui donner une dimension interventionniste, ceci par la formation de certains acteurs du terrain. / This research confronts the concerns surrounding the professionalisation of psychiatric and mental health nurses. It takes place in a financed context through its implementation as a CIFRE programme (research and training agreement). As its sponsor, the mental health care facility of the Lille Metropolitan area has set up a plan called “professionalisation and tutoring” in order to complete nurses’ initial training, judged insufficient since the psychiatric nurses’ degree and its associated training were shut down in 1992. The plan’s significance is analysed through three levels and from a comprehensive approach. The first level regards its situation in the historical and cultural evolution of the professional group. The second, that which concerns the plan’s actors getting involved to make it work. The final level refers to the neo-nurses appropriation of the educative work instituted by the plan. It is shown that the plan expresses an intention of (re)professionalising the social group by establishing a relation between work and training. This third level is used as an analytical line allowing the study of how, in neo-nurses’ experience, the relationship with the craft is built. The theme of violence in psychiatry is also examined through the relation between work and training to study how it is taken into account in the nurses’ practices. Finally, the typicality of this research, financed by a sponsor’s funds, implies that it has to deal with a system of expectations composed of different levels. Here, the researcher is made to consider its involvement and give an interventionist dimension by training some actors of the field.

This research focuses on the provision of intrastate security and on the question how states in the global South do or do not provide security for their citizens and do or do not protect them from physical violence. This thesis argues that while institutional conditions are an important aspect of security provision in the global South, more attention needs to be paid to policy processes. Institution building as set out in the literature about Security Sector Reform and statebuilding assumes that it is possible to provide security to all citizens of a state by building democratic state security institutions. However, this is only possible if the state is the predominant force of controlling violence. Research showed that this is rarely the case in countries of the global South. This thesis contends that statehood in the global South is contested due to power struggles between multiple state and non-state elites. It argues that the analysis of security policy processes allows for an analysis of security provision in societies where no centralised control over violence exists. It contributes to a better understanding of the shortcomings of security provision in the global South because it shows the impact of societal and state actors on security policy making. Using the case of security policy making under the first FMLN (Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, Farabundo Martí Front for National Liberation) government in El Salvador (2009-2014), the thesis shows that, in a contested state policy making does not result from a pact between the state and society or from a social consensus as envisaged by parts of the FMLN and other forces of the New Left in Latin America. Instead, policy making results from elite pacts and elite struggles. This is illustrated in the domination of an ad hoc decision-making mode which describes short-term decisions which are insufficiently implemented and easily reversed or replaced. Thus, security provision as a policy field remains focused on elite interests and does not include the interests of the broader population.

Recent scholarship has examined the lived experience of unmarried women in nineteenth- and twentieth-century Britain, both in cities and in the countryside. Typically, scholarship in this field has focussed on women's social identity whether spinster, widow or lesbian and addressed how these types of women were variously used in fiction and the press to contest or uphold the gendered status quo. This thesis problematises the distinct characterisation of these social identities by examining works which seek to unify female social identity at the fin de siècle through a common modern experience: the conflict between individual and collective life. All of the female subjects examined in this thesis whether author, artist, or fictional character, and whether married, separated, unmarried, widowed, homosexual, or not easily identifiable either way are solitary figures. Their movement within and interaction with their environments reveal the uneasy combination of separation and exposure experienced by working women of all classes at the fin de siècle. This thesis examines the solitary female figure in works of British fiction produced between 1880 and 1922. It considers the pressures and implications of separation and exposure in relation to female celebrity and creative practices at the fin de siècle. My methodology involves examining the biography and auto/biographical works of Amy Levy (1861-1889), George Egerton (pseud. of Mary Chavelita Dunne Bright; 1859-1945), Sarah Grand (pseud. of Frances Elizabeth Bellenden McFall; 1854-1943) and Charlotte Mew (1869-1923), and drawing out aspects that speak to the desires for privacy and, conversely, publicity and/or companionship. I identify how their lived experience of this conflict broadly, between society and solitude affected the depiction of modern female consciousness in their literary works by examining their female characters subjective interaction with three environments: the foreign landscape, the home, and the city. My aim is to identify how Levy, Egerton, Grand and Mew used their literary works to acknowledge and retaliate against the restrictions which continued to limit urban women's physical, social and psychological autonomy.

L’éducation tout au long de la vie est aujourd’hui devenue un paradigme porté par L’UNESCO et le conseil de l’Europe en matière éducative. En France, sous l’égide de L’OCDE, les politiques ont privilégié l’instauration de dispositifs de formation tout au long de la vie afin de répondre rapidement aux problématiques de l’emploi plus qu’à un besoin de réorganisation du système éducatif. La loi de 1971 défit l’éducation permanente et s’impose comme un compromis à ces principes qui omettaient l’intégration des adultes dans le système traditionnel.Cette recherche, présentée en trois parties, interroge l’éducation et la formation tout au long de la vie. Plus particulièrement, elle s’intéresse à la manière dont l’individu se façonne et affine sa personnalité dans ce contexte de formation. L’étude est empirique, elle s’appuie sur l’expérience, impliquant dans un premier temps le parcours du chercheur, puis dans un second temps celui d’adultes en reprise de formation. L’approche scientifique, repose sur deux axes de recherche : l’analyse de la réalité de l’éducation pour les adultes en formation selon leur besoin et l’étude de leur parcours afin de mesurer leur niveau d’individuation. Les points qui sont discutés concernent l’enrichissement de la conscience collective qui se nourrit des possibles, de la créativité et du savoir nés de l’agir responsable des individus. Au niveau philosophique, il s’agit de comprendre comment l’Homme singulier devient Total par l’acquisition des compétences qui transforment le savoir en praxis. À partir des observations focalisées sur le projet individuel de l’adulte, l’analyse de terrain explore l’engagement de la personne dans son processus de formation lorsque ce dernier induit des changements et influence son processus d’individuation. Il s’agit de comprendre l’impact de l’éducation tout au long de la vie sur les adultes en reprises d’études et de discuter des transformations identitaires.L’étude s’appuyant sur la théorie ancrée, repose sur 126 récits de vie d’étudiants en licence Sciences de l’éducation et 4 entretiens biographiques non-directifs d’adultes en formation. Le recueil des données a été classé selon dix catégories substantives permettant d’analyser les ressentis des participants face à leur reprise d’études. Les récits de vie délivrent des indices qui apportent une vision empirique des possibles de la réalité de l’éducation tout au long de la vie.Les résultats montrent que l’individu s’engage dans son évolution. Il se forge un capital de connaissances pour se transformer, changer de vie ou se changer la vie. La réalité de l’éducation tout au long de la vie apparaît majoritairement comme un moyen au service du reclassement professionnel et social. Les adultes augmentent leurs compétences et présentent au regard des employeurs un capital qui les valorisent. Ces étudiants/adultes sont engagés dans la course d’un avenir professionnel qui fluctue selon leur désir de promotion et de satisfaction au travail pour atteindre un meilleur niveau de vie et de confort au quotidien. Le processus d’individuation est centré sur l’analyse de l’intensité de leur émancipation et de leur épanouissement. Dans chaque récit, les étudiants expliquent leur prise d’autonomie et manifestent leur enthousiasme suite à la formation, ce qui témoigne de leur transformation identitaire et du niveau de progression de leur individuation en adéquation à l’acte d’apprentissage. / Lifelong learning has become the paradigm of education supported by UNESCO and the Council of Europe. In France, under the aegis of the OECD policies have favored the introduction of continuing education schemes in response to employment problems rather than the recognition that the education system needs an overhaul. The 1971 Act challenged continuing education and imposed itself as a compromise to these principles by omitting the integration of adults into the traditional educational system.This research, presented in three parts, examines continuing education and training. More specifically, it focuses on how the individual shapes and refines their personality in such an educational condition. The study is empirical, based on experience, first concentrating on the course taken by the researcher, then the course taken by adults having resumed their education. The scientific approach is based on two lines of research which will analyze the conditions and needs of adults engaged in continuing education and study their personal course in order to measure their degree of individuation. The thesis will approach such ideas as the enrichment of the collective consciousness feeding on possibilities, and creativity and knowledge brought forth by the responsible actions of the individual. At a philosophical level, it is a matter of understanding how an individual becomes complete through the acquisition of skills transforming knowledge into praxis. Based on observations focused on the adult’s personal project, the field study explores the person's involvement in the training process and how by making changes the individual can influence the individuation process. The aim is to understand the impact of continuing training on adults having resumed their education and to examine how it can result in an identity transformation.The study is a grounded theory and is based on 126 accounts of students studying for a degree in Education Science and 4 biographical interviews led in a self-centered approach of adults engaged in continuing training. The data collected has been classified in ten nominal categories enabling the analysis of the participants feelings regarding their continuing education. The individual accounts deliver clues allowing an empirical view of the possibilities of the conditions in which continuing education is engaged.The results show that the individual is actively involved in his evolution. The person builds a capital of knowledge in order to transform oneself, to change lives, or to bring change to one’s life. The facts of continuing education mostly appear as a means of professional or social reclassification. Adults increase their skills and are therefore better considered by employers. These adult students are engaged on a professional course that shifts according to their desire for promotion or work satisfaction in order to attain a better standard of living and well-being.The results show that the individual is committed to its evolution. The individuation process focuses on the analysis of the degree of their emancipation and development. In each narrative the students explain how they became autonomous and their enthusiasm for the training, which indicates their identity transformation and the level of progress in their individuation process in line with the action of learning.

Le statut et la fonction de l'entraîneur sportif se sont progressivement développés avec la naissance du sport moderne, à partir de la fin du XVIIIe siècle. Du début du XXe siècle à aujourd'hui, le modèle le plus prégnant est celui du technicien de « terrain » dont les méthodes se construisent avant tout sous l'influence socioculturelle dans laquelle il est « baigné ». À partir des années 1980, le processus de professionnalisation qui s'est développé a eu comme conséquence une subdivision des modèles stabilisés en nombreux profils individuels, qui vont bien au-delà du simple triptyque technicien-meneur d'hommes-stratège, mis en avant dans les différentes représentations de sens commun. L'analyse des discours de vingt entraîneurs sportifs, choisis pour représenter au mieux l'ensemble de cette population, nous permet de confirmer les modèles socioculturels connus, et de faire apparaître des profils individuels variés. Elle permet surtout de mettre en évidence l'ensemble des logiques de professionnalisation de cette population. Qu'elles soient communicationnelles, techniques, organisationnelles ou de formation, ces logiques ont comme intérêt scientifique de montrer comment les entraîneurs sportifs se construisent professionnellement aujourd'hui. / The status and function of the sport coach have steadily developed since the birth of modern-era sport, in the late 18th century. From the early 20th c. to the present day, the most significant model is that of the field technician whose methods have been built under the influence of his or her social and cultural background. The 1980s saw the emergence of a professionalisation process which subdivided the existing patterns into a variety of individual models, going further beyond the mere three-dimensional combination of the technician-leader-strategist that seems to be the most received representation. Material collected from twenty interviews with sport trainers who were chosen as the best possible sample of the population has been analyzed. This analysis both confirms the received social and cultural patterns and highlights various individual models. In particular, it traces all the logical sequences that define the professionalisation of the population.Be they related to communication, techniques, organisation or training, these sequences find their scientific value in the demonstration they make of how sport coaching takes shape nowadays.

With Youth work being one of the key interventions used to advance the development of young people, through this study, the researcher takes a closer look at how Youth work can be enhanced to ensure its maximised contribution to empowerment and development of young people. On that basis, the researcher investigates the perceptions, attitudes, and opinions of social service professionals towards emergence and future status of Youth work practice in South Africa. This is essential, given that policy directions ought to be guided by rational, fact-based information. The researcher used two-phased sequential mixed methods research approach, which combines qualitative and quantitative methods in sequence, to explore the research phenomenon. Qualitative data was gathered from four (4) focus groups, conducted in each of the selected South Africa’s provinces. Quantitative data was gathered from five hundred and ninety-three (593) respondents who completed a measuring instrument. Some of the key empirical findings suggested that the social development factors compared to human resources and diversion factors are key drivers behind emergence of Youth work. Therefore, there is a need to ensure that interventions primarily and consequently enhance the social functioning of young people. On the current status of Youth work, a significant majority of respondents indicated that Youth work is the responsibility of a multi-disciplinary team. The evidence also pointed to Youth workers being more skilled than Social workers and Child youth care workers in rendering services to the youth. Additionally, the findings showed that the involvement of social service professionals in Youth work was mainly in collaborating with other professionals when rendering Youth work services, and also in direct service delivery. Their involvement in policy development was to no extent. This was associated with a limited number of Youth workers in the public sector. The findings on perceptions of social service professionals regarding the future status of Youth work showed that 75% of the respondents believe that Youth work should become an area of specialisation for Social work and/or Child and youth care work; followed by 17% who are of the opinion that it should remain as an occupation; whilst only 8% said it should be an autonomous profession. Additionally, an overwhelming majority of the respondents agreed with all statements which were listed as advantages or benefits of having Youth work recognised as an area of specialisation or a profession. On the basis of these findings, the researcher recommended that young people’s problems and aspirations should be addressed within their social contexts; there is a need to ensure that interventions primarily enhance the social functioning of young people; there is a need to have Youth work as an area of specialisation for Social work and/or Child and youth care work; and there is a need to create additional capacity to provide services to the youth, especially in government as a policy making structure. It is essential to note that the support for specialisation supports South Africa’s approach to mainstreaming youth development across various sectors. It could also be seen as a clear indication of the positive role and value placed on Youth work, and the potential contribution it might have should it become an area of specialisation for Social work and/or Child and youth care work. / Thesis (DPhil)--University of Pretoria, 2012. / Social Work and Criminology / unrestricted

The diploma thesis deals with the intersectoral cooperation between the non- governmental organizations (NGO) and the expert volunteers from the market sector. In the theoretical part, the work is devoted to individual sectors of the economy with an emphasis on the market sector and the civil sector, the causes of intersectoral cooperation, the intersectoral cooperation models and the phenomena that the intersectoral cooperation can potentially bring about. The aim is to find out how this cooperation is perceived by NGO staff through the theoretical framework of professionalisation and commercialization of civil society organizations. Using a qualitatively oriented research, the thesis examines the intersectoral cooperation of a participants in the Vodafone Foundation Year Differently project.

This research focuses on the provision of intrastate security and on the question how states in the global South do or do not provide security for their citizens and do or do not protect them from physical violence. This thesis argues that while institutional conditions are an important aspect of security provision in the global South, more attention needs to be paid to policy processes. Institution building as set out in the literature about Security Sector Reform and statebuilding assumes that it is possible to provide security to all citizens of a state by building democratic state security institutions. However, this is only possible if the state is the predominant force of controlling violence. Research showed that this is rarely the case in countries of the global South. This thesis contends that statehood in the global South is contested due to power struggles between multiple state and non-state elites. It argues that the analysis of security policy processes allows for an analysis of security provision in societies where no centralised control over violence exists. It contributes to a better understanding of the shortcomings of security provision in the global South because it shows the impact of societal and state actors on security policy making. Using the case of security policy making under the first FMLN (Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, Farabundo Martí Front for National Liberation) government in El Salvador (2009-2014), the thesis shows that, in a contested state policy making does not result from a pact between the state and society or from a social consensus as envisaged by parts of the FMLN and other forces of the New Left in Latin America. Instead, policy making results from elite pacts and elite struggles. This is illustrated in the domination of an ad hoc decision-making mode which describes short-term decisions which are insufficiently implemented and easily reversed or replaced. Thus, security provision as a policy field remains focused on elite interests and does not include the interests of the broader population.