Esta dissertação, inserida em linha de pesquisa de \"História, Filosofia e Cultura no Ensino de Ciências\", abordou a inserção de um episódio da História da Ciência no ensino de Biologia da educação básica. A pesquisa, caracterizada por uma abordagem inclusiva da História da Ciência no ensino de Biologia, foi orientada pelos seguintes objetivos: 1) desenvolver o estudo de um episódio histórico envolvendo a viagem do naturalista inglês Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913) ao Brasil, no século XIX; 2) desenvolver um estudo empírico de utilização de episódio da História da Biologia no ensino e aprendizagem de conteúdos de Biologia por meio da elaboração, validação, aplicação e avaliação de uma sequência didática; 3) investigar os efeitos da utilização de um episódio de História da Biologia sobre aspectos motivacionais e emocionais dos alunos durante o ensino e aprendizagem de conteúdos de Biologia. A viagem de Wallace à Amazônia foi analisada segundo a metodologia de pesquisa em História da Ciência, fazendo uso de fontes primárias e secundárias. Foram investigadas a formação inicial do pesquisador e as motivações para a realização da viagem segundo o contexto das expedições científicas do século XIX. Foram ainda discutidas as principais contribuições que ele desenvolveu, particularmente sobre as palmeiras amazônicas. Esse estudo gerou um material que pode servir de subsídio ao professor que deseje abordar esse episódio histórico em sala de aula. A partir desse episódio, foi elaborada uma sequência didática baseada nos estudos de Wallace sobre as palmeiras amazônicas. As palmeiras estudadas por Wallace serviram de base para os alunos realizarem atividades relacionadas à classificação biológica, ao uso de chaves dicotômicas de identificação e à elaboração de uma matriz de classificação filogenética. A sequência didática foi composta de oito aulas desenvolvidas com diferentes estratégias de ensino e aprendizagem, com uso de materiais instrucionais especialmente elaborados para cada aula. Após processo de validação, a sequência didática foi aplicada em duas turmas de 2º ano do Ensino Médio, de uma escola pública, no município de São Paulo, no primeiro semestre de 2013. Foi realizada triangulação de dados obtidos por meio de gravação e transcrição das aulas, bem como aplicação de dois questionários validados pela literatura: um destinado a avaliar motivação e outro a avaliar emoção situacional dos alunos. A análise dos dados obtidos levou à elaboração de uma representação gráfica mapeando as disposições motivacionais e emocionais dos alunos durante as interações de ensino e aprendizagem da sequência didática. Como resultados principais da pesquisa empírica que podem contribuir para a área de ensino de Ciências Naturais em que abordagens históricas estão inseridas, destacam-se evidências de que os alunos responderam positivamente à aprendizagem de conteúdos científicos atuais considerados complexos e distantes do seu dia a dia, como é o caso da classificação filogenética, após esse estudo ter sido provocado a partir dos estudos de Wallace na Amazônia. Esta pesquisa também contribui com a divulgação de uma metodologia para investigar aspectos motivacionais e emocionais dos alunos na aprendizagem de conteúdos de Biologia. Finalmente, estabeleceu alguns parâmetros sobre a contribuição da História da Ciência no ensino de Biologia. / This dissertation, set in search of \"History, Philosophy and Culture in Science Education\" line, addressed the insertion of an episode of the History of Science in Biology teaching of basic education. The research, characterized by an inclusive approach of the History of Science in teaching Biology, was guided by the following objectives: 1) develop the study of a historical episode involving the journey of the English naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913) to Brazil in the nineteenth century; 2) develop an empirical study of using episode of the History of Biology in teaching and learning content biology through the development, validation, implementation and evaluation of an instructional sequence; 3) investigate the effects of using of an episode of the History of Biology on motivational and emotional aspects of learning content for students of Biology. A trip to the Amazon Wallace was analyzed according to the methodology of research in History of Science, using primary and secondary sources. The initial training of the researcher and the motivations for the provision of travel were investigated according to the context of the scientific expeditions of the nineteenth century. We also discuss the major contributions he has developed, particularly on Amazonian palm trees. This study generated a material that can serve as a subsidy to the teacher who wishes to address this historical episode in the classroom. From this episode, we created a teaching sequence based on the studies of Wallace on the Amazon palm trees. Palm trees studied by Wallace served as the basis for students to carry out activities related to biological classification, the use of dichotomous keys for identification and development of a phylogenetic classification matrix. The teaching learning sequence consisted of eight lessons developed with different strategies of teaching and learning, using a specially designed instructional materials for each class. After the validation process, the teaching learning sequence was applied to two groups of 2nd year of High School, a public school in São Paulo, in the first half of 2013. Triangulation of data obtained through the recording and transcription of the classes as well as application of two validated questionnaires in the literature was performed: one designed to assess motivation and to review other students\' situational emotion. The data analysis led to the development of a graphical representation mapping the motivational and emotional dispositions of students during interactions of teaching and learning instructional sequence. As the results of empirical research that can contribute to the area of teaching natural sciences in that historical approaches are inserted, are evidence that the students responded positively to learning of scientific considered complex and current content away from their daily lives, such as the phylogenetic classification, after this study have been caused from the studies of Wallace in the Amazon. This research also contributes to the dissemination of a methodology for investigating motivational and emotional aspects of learning content students in Biology. Finally, set some parameters on the contribution of the History of Science in teaching Biology.

Este trabalho objetivou caracterizar e estimar a adaptabilidade e a estabilidade de 24 populações e quantificar a divergência genética entre 480 (20 linhagens x 24 populações) linhagens de soja, por meio de caracteres agromorfológicos. Os experimentos foram conduzidos em três locais (Anhumas, Areão e ESALQ), localizados no município de Piracicaba - SP. Nos anos agrícolas 2007/08, 2008/09, 2009/10 e 2011/12 foram realizados dois experimentos por ano, delineados em blocos ao acaso e constituídos por repetições estratificadas em dois conjuntos experimentais, formados por 12 populações e duas testemunhas comuns (BRS 133 e Monsoy 8001 ou Conquista). Em 2011/12, de cada uma das 24 populações, foram colhidas, trilhadas e pesadas as sementes de 36 plantas individuais; a seguir, foram selecionadas as 20 plantas (linhagens F15:16) mais produtivas para compor os experimentos de 2012/13; em 2013/14, foram avaliadas as linhagens F15:17; foram realizados dois experimentos por ano, no delineamento de blocos aumentados de Federer, estratificando-se as 480 linhagens em 24 conjuntos experimentais; cada conjunto recebeu as 20 linhagens de uma dada população, mais as duas testemunhas comuns (BRS 133 e Monsoy 8001), totalizando 22 parcelas. Em todos os anos agrícolas foram conduzidos dois experimentos vizinhos, um com manejo FAS, que recebeu aplicações sucessivas de fungicidas para controle da ferrugem asiática e outras doenças de fim de ciclo (DFC); e, outro experimento com manejo DFC, no qual foram feitas aplicações de um fungicida que controla as DFC, exceto a ferrugem. Vinte caracteres agromorfológicos foram avaliados e também foram estimadas as taxas de reação à ferrugem baseada na produtividade de grãos (FP) e no tamanho das sementes (FT, representado pelo peso de cem sementes); FP e FT foram estimadas para cada genótipo, calculando-se a diferença entre as médias ajustadas nos manejos DFC e FAS, dividindo-se pela média DFC e multiplicando por 100. Para a análise de adaptabilidade e estabilidade, foram utilizados os métodos de Eberhart e Russel e AMMI. No estudo de divergência genética foi usada a distância Euclidiana Média, e os agrupamentos foram obtidos pelo Método de Tocher. Com exceção da cor do tegumento, uniformemente amarelo, foi observada variabilidade genética para todos os demais 19 caracteres, incluindo-se as FP e FT. A população USP 98-13.009 (P21) destacou-se por apresentar médias relativamente altas para produtividade de grãos e para peso de cem sementes e níveis satisfatórios de tolerância à ferrugem. As metodologias Eberhart & Russel e AMMI foram capazes de identificar populações comuns, com médias elevadas para produtividade de grãos, com estabilidade de produtividade e adaptadas aos 16 ambientes em estudo. Os ambientes, principalmente os locais, foram bem distinguidos pela metodologia AMMI. Na análise de divergência, a variabilidade genética, permitiu a observação de linhagens dissimilares. Foram observados diferentes tipos de agrupamento para os experimentos com manejo de doenças (manejos FAS, DFC e combinação FAS + DFC), o que pode ser explicado pela interação genótipos x anos. O agrupamento realizado com os dados obtidos nos experimentos combinados dos manejos (FAS + DFC) foi o mais conciso e adequado com a dissimilaridade entre as linhagens. / This work aimed to characterize and to estimate adaptability and stability of 24 populations, besides to quantify the genetic divergence between 480 (20 lines x 24 populations) lines of soybean, through agromorphological characters. The experiments were conducted in three locations (Anhumas, Areão, ESALQ), located in Piracicaba - SP. In the crop years 2007/08, 2008/09, 2009/10 and 2011/12, were performed two experiments per year in randomized complete block design, consisting of replications stratified in two experimental sets, constituted by 12 populations and two common checks (BRS 133 and Monsoy 8001 or Conquista). In 2011/12, in each of the 24 populations were harvested, trashed and weighted the seeds of 36 individual plants; then, the most productive 20 plants were selected for obtaining F15:16 lines and composing the experiments of 2012/13; in 2013/14, were evaluated the F15:17 lines. There were conducted two experiments per year designed in augmented block of Federer, by stratifying the 480 soybean lines in 24 experimental sets. Each set consisted of 20 lines of a given population and two common checks (BRS 133 and Monsoy 8001), totaling 22 plots. In each year, there were conducted two experiments, one with FAS management which received successive applications of fungicides for controlling the Asian soybean rust and other late season leaf diseases (DFC); the other experiment received the DFC management in which it was made applications of a fungicide to control the DFC, except rust. Twenty agromorphological characters were evaluated and also estimated the rate of reaction to rust based on seed yield (FP) and seed size (FT, represented by the weight of one hundred seeds or PCS); FP and FT were estimated for each genotype, by calculating the difference between the adjusted means in DFC and FAS managements, dividing by DFC mean and multiplying by 100. For the analysis of adaptability and stability were used Eberhart & Russell and AMMI methods. In the study of genetic divergence was used the Average Mean Euclidean distance, and the clusters was obtained by Tocher method. With exception of color of seed coat, with an uniform yellow color, it was observed genetic variability for the other 19 traits, including FP and FT. The USP 98-13.009 (P21) population highlighted by present relatively high averages for seed yield and weight of one hundred seeds, besides the satisfactory levels of rust tolerance. Both methodologies, Eberhart & Russell and AMMI, were able to identify common populations with high means of seed yield, yield stability and adaptation to of the 16 environments in study. The environments, mainly locations, were well distinguished by the AMMI methodology. In the divergence analysis, the genetic variability allowed the observation of dissimilar lines. Different types of clusters were observed for disease managements (FAS, DFC, and FAS + DFC) which could be explained by the genotypes x years interaction. The grouping performed with the combination FAS + DFC data was the more concise and appropriate to estimate the dissimilarity among lines.

As computer system usage grows in our world, system administrators need better visibility into the workings of computer systems, especially when those systems have problems or go down. Most system components, from hardware, through OS, to application server and application, write log files of some sort, be it system-standardized logs such syslog or application specific logs. These logs very often contain valuable clues to the nature of system problems and outages, but their verbosity can make them difficult to utilize. Statistical data mining methods could help in filtering and classifying log entries, but these tools are often out of the reach of administrators. This research tests the effectiveness of three off-the-shelf Bayesian spam email filters (SpamAssassin, SpamBayes and Bogofilter) for effectiveness as log entry classifiers. A simple scoring system, the Filter Effectiveness Scale (FES), is proposed and used to compare these filters. These filters are tested in three stages: 1) the filters were tested with the SpamAssassin corpus, with various manipulations made to the messages, 2) the filters were tested for their ability to differentiate two types of log entries taken from actual production systems, and 3) the filters were trained on log entries from actual system outages and then tested on effectiveness for finding similar outages via the log files. For stage 1, messages were tested with normalized bodies, normalized headers and with each sentence from each message body as a separate message with a standardized message. The impact of each manipulation is presented. For stages 2 and 3, log entries were tested with digits normalized to zeros, with words chained together to various lengths and one or all levels of word chains used together. The impacts of these manipulations are presented. In each of these stages, it was found that these widely available Bayesian content filters were effective in differentiating log entries. Tables of correct match percentages or score graphs, according to the nature of tests and numbers of entries are presented, are presented, and FES scores are assigned to the filters according to the attributes impacting their effectiveness. This research leads to the suggestion that simple, off-the-shelf Bayesian content filters can be used to assist system administrators and log mining systems in sifting log entries to find entries related to known conditions (for which there are example log entries), and to exclude outages which are not related to specific known entry sets.

Submitted by Filipe dos Santos (fsantos@pucsp.br) on 2017-05-12T13:15:19Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Emerson Barão Rodrigues Soldado.pdf: 1847336 bytes, checksum: 3359e905956b8dca118c628a500862ce (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-05-12T13:15:19Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Emerson Barão Rodrigues Soldado.pdf: 1847336 bytes, checksum: 3359e905956b8dca118c628a500862ce (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-02-15 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES / Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913), English naturalist well-known for his studies on natural selection, chose Amazon as his first long range expedition. Between the years of 1848 to 1852, he observed and described the fauna, flora, geology and human groups that inhabited the surroundings. In these studies, Wallace also thoroughly addressed the subject of animal distribution, including figuring out the range limits of the species and their relations to the physical environment. Nevertheless, the maturation of these ideas as well as others just as important to the naturalist work only happened during a future expedition to the Malay Archipelago. An expedition of great notoriety that has become an object of analysis of many studies in present days. The present dissertation, however, specifically addresses the origins of ideas, such as the range limit of species, which remain linked to Wallace's Amazonian journey / Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913), naturalista inglês bem conhecido por seus estudos sobre a seleção natural, escolheria como lugar para sua primeira expedição de longo alcance a Amazônia. Assim, entre 1848 e1852, observou e descreveu a fauna, a flora, a geologia e os grupos humanos que ali habitavam. Nesses estudos, Wallace também abordaria, detalhadamente, a temática da distribuição dos animais, inclusive, apontando os limites de alcance das espécies e sua relação com o meio físico. Mesmo assim, a maturação tanto dessas ideias, quanto de outras importantes para a obra do naturalista, apenas teria ocorrido em sua futura expedição ao arquipélago Malaio. Uma expedição de grande notoriedade que se transformou em objeto de estudo de muitas pesquisas na atualidade. A presente dissertação, porém, visa especificamente às origens de ideias, como a do limite de alcance das espécies, que permanecem ligadas à viagem pela Amazônia feita por Wallace

Submitted by Gilvan Almeida (gilvan.almeida@icict.fiocruz.br) on 2016-09-26T14:06:08Z No. of bitstreams: 2 license.txt: 1748 bytes, checksum: 8a4605be74aa9ea9d79846c1fba20a33 (MD5) 204.pdf: 7056615 bytes, checksum: 78a78d224254bda7960e42a3577c4cae (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Barata Manoel (msbarata@coc.fiocruz.br) on 2016-10-04T18:46:33Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 2 license.txt: 1748 bytes, checksum: 8a4605be74aa9ea9d79846c1fba20a33 (MD5) 204.pdf: 7056615 bytes, checksum: 78a78d224254bda7960e42a3577c4cae (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-10-04T18:46:33Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 license.txt: 1748 bytes, checksum: 8a4605be74aa9ea9d79846c1fba20a33 (MD5) 204.pdf: 7056615 bytes, checksum: 78a78d224254bda7960e42a3577c4cae (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014 / Fundação Oswaldo Cruz. Casa de Oswaldo Cruz. Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil. / Esta tese tem por objetivo fazer um estudo sobre o trabalho de campo do coletor e naturalista britânico Alfred Russel Wallace na Amazônia, efetuado no período de 1848 a 1852. Por meio da análise de sua experiência de exploração ao norte do Brasil, elucida, primeiramente, a partir de seus escritos produzidos na e sobre a região, de que maneira a natureza tropical foi interpretada ou imaginada por ele durante o período oitocentista. Em segundo lugar, examina a experiência material desse coletor de espécies com a realidade amazônica; e, com isso, recuperar, ao mesmo tempo, o cotidiano de suas viagens e as formas pelas quais interagiu com o ambiente e as culturas dos lugares que visitou. Por último, demonstra-se que a experiência de campo foi fundamental para seu treinamento técnico e formação intelectual, já que foi através dela que o naturalista pôde adquirir habilidades e amadurecer reflexões as quais o transformaram em um filósofo da natureza. Para isso, esta análise valeu-se de recursos metodológicos e fontes de variadas naturezas: apreciação de relatos de viagem de exploradores setecentistas e oitocentistas; estudo específico das obras sobre a Amazônia de Alfred Russel Wallace; análise da correspondência relacionada aos viajantes Richard Spruce, Henry Bates e Wallace; exame de algumas coleções de espécimes; além da pesquisa em relatórios de Presidentes de Província e textos de autoridades locais. Por fim, para além da discussão sobre as alteridades ambiental e humana, esta proposta de trabalho consiste em analisar as interações de homens de ciência com a realidade da região e avaliar de que modo estas foram cruciais para o sucesso do trabalho de Wallace como naturalista. / This thesis examines the collector and naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace’s explorations and fieldwork in the Amazon, from 1848-1852. By analyzing his experience in the north of Brazil through his writings produced in and about the region, this study first elucidates how tropical nature was interpreted or imagined during the 19th century. Secondly, this thesis examines this collector’s material experience with Amazon reality, uncovering, at the same time, the daily life of his travels and the ways in which Russel Wallace interacted with the environment and cultures of the places he visited. Lastly, this thesis emphasizes that the Wallace’s experience in the field was essential for his technical and intellectual training, as it was through these encounters that the naturalist acquired the skills and mature reflections that turned him into a philosopher of nature. To do so, this thesis analyzes methodological resources and a variety of primary sources: the assessment of 18th - and 19th - century explorers’ travel reports; the specific study of Alfred Russel Wallace’s works on the Amazon; the analysis of correspondence between travelers Richard Spruce, Henry Bates, and Wallace; the examination of some specimen collections; and research on provincial presidential reports and local authorities’ writings. With this, this thesis sought to map the paths by which naturalists traveled the Amazon region and elucidate how species collectors took advantage of existing trade relations and power structures, established in the northern region since the colonial period, to traverse the Amazon River and its tributaries. In conclusion, going beyond the discussion of the environmental and human.

Christie's and Sotheby's auction houses have adapted their way of working to a digitally progressive and globally expanding market, where the Internet, during the past two decades, has become an increasingly integral part of almost every aspect of current western culture.  This thesis examines and demonstrates how, and why, the two auction houses have adapted their work to be published through their digital and physical channels.  This thesis also examines and analyzes how Christie’s and Sotheby’s have customized their way of presenting their auction lots to potential costumers, and how they use technological innovations to visualize materiality.  Intermediate presentations of four auction lots, available through Christie's and Sotheby's Instagram accounts, websites and physical auction catalogs, are the main focus of this thesis.  The historical and contextual information, on an increasingly technologically innovative and digitally focused art and auction market, together with predominantly Roland Barthe’s semiotic theoretical framework regarding picture’s denoted and connoted messages, are being analyzed with Anne D’Alleva’s formal and contextual methodology for pictorial analysis.

Both historiographical and literary practices have undergone revision in recent years in attempting to address the inheritance of nineteenth-century realism. Since the object of realist stylistics, employed in both the writing of fiction and history, is to render authorship authoritative or even invisible, the ideological import of these narratives is often such that the constructedness of the historical record and its absences are veiled. In developments beginning in the 1980s with the advent of ‘New Historicism’ and with the emergence of postmodern literary techniques, the interface of literature and history became of seminal importance, since both were now credited as being products of narrative and discourse, and hence, to varying degrees, of the literary imagination. This movement intersects interestingly with developments in postcolonial studies, since it is the voices of the marginalized and disempowered colonized peoples that are routinely co-opted and excised from nineteenth-century realist histories. These concerns are now being fully explored in the literature of the contemporary post-transitional South African moment, since authors in this country seemingly now feel freed up to look back to histories that precede the immediate traumas of apartheid. The concern, in relation to apartheid developments but also on a broader universal scale, is this: if history is viewed as perpetual emergences of modernities, then one of the great absences in the record is the historical determinants of any given epistemology. The attempt to recreate such an epistemological genealogy is thus simultaneously postcolonial, historiographical, and literary. Russel Brownlee’s Garden of the Plagues (2005), Ingrid Winterbach’s To Hell with Cronjé (2010), and Etienne van Heerden’s The Long Silence of Mario Salviati (2002) attempt to bridge this gap in the recorded sensibilities of any historical moment by representing a ‘lived experience’ of the past, and in the process imaginatively recreating the cultural, historical and psychological locations of the proponents of an emerging modernity. This study concerns itself with the ways in which these authors address the influence of realist historiography through the use of literary innovations that allow for the departure from realist stylistics. Most commonly, all three authors draw on forms of magic realism, but multiple refigurings and recombinations of notions of temporality, narrative, and characterization likewise work to defamiliarize the once stable discourse of history.

Die Dissertation leistet drei Beiträge zur Forschung: (1) Sie entwickelt ein neuartiges vierstufiges Modell wissenschaftlicher Theorien. Dieses Modell kombiniert logisch-empiristische Ansätze (Carnap, Popper, Frege) mit Konzepten von Metaphern & Narrativen (Wittgenstein, Burke, Morgan), erlaubt so deutlich präzisiere Beschreibungen wissenschaftlicher Theorien bereit und löst/mildert Widersprüche in logisch-empiristischen Modellen. (Realismus vs. Empirismus, analytische vs. synthetische Aussagen, Unterdeterminiertheit/ Holismus, wissenschaftliche Erklärungen, Demarkation) (2) Mit diesem Modell gelingt ein Reihenvergleich sechs biologischer Theorien von Lamarck (1809), über Cuvier (1811), Geoffroy St. Hilaire (1835), Chambers (1844-60), Owen (1848-68), Wallace (1855/8) zu Darwin (1859-1872). Dieser Vergleich offenbart eine interessante Asymmetrie: Vergleicht man Darwin mit je einem Vorgänger, so bestehen zahlreiche wichtige Unterschiede. Vergleicht man ihn mit fünf Vorgängern, verschwinden diese fast völlig: Darwins originärer Beitrag zur Revolution in der Biologie des 19.Jh ist klein und seine Antwort nur eine aus einer kontinuierlichen Serie auf die empirischen Herausforderungen durch Paläontologie & Biogeographie seit Ende des 18. Jh. (3) Eine gestufte Rezeptionsanalyse zeigt, warum wir dennoch von einer Darwinschen Revolution sprechen. Zuerst zeigt eine quantitative Analyse der fast 2.000 biologischen Artikel in Britannien zwischen 1858 und 1876, dass Darwinsche Konzepte zwar wichtige Neuerungen brachten, jedoch nicht singulär herausragen. Verlässt man die Biologie und schaut sich die Rezeption bei anderen Wissenschaftlern und gebildeten Laien an, wechselt das Bild: Je weiter man aus der Biologie heraustritt, desto weniger Ebenen biologischen Wissens kennen die Rezipienten und desto sichtbarer wird Darwins Beitrag. Schließlich findet sich sein Beitrag in den abstraktesten Ebenen des biologischen Wissens: in Narrativ und Weltbild – den Ebenen die Laien rezipieren. / The dissertation makes three contributions to research: (1) It develops a novel 4-level-model of scientific theories which combines logical-empirical ideas (Carnap, Popper, Frege) with concepts of metaphors & narratives (Wittgenstein, Burke, Morgan), providing a new powerful toolbox for the analysis & comparison of scientific theories and overcoming/softening contradictions in logical-empirical models. (realism vs. empiricism, analytic vs. synthetic statements, holism, theory-laden observations, scientific explanations, demarcation) (2) Based on this model, the dissertation compares six biological theories from Lamarck (1809), via Cuvier (1811), Geoffroy St. Hilaire (1835), Chambers (1844-60), Owen (1848-68), Wallace (1855/8) to Darwin (1859-1872) and reveals an interesting asymmetry: Compared to any one of his predecessors, Darwins theory appears very original, however, compared to all five predecessor theories, many of these differences disappear and it remains but a small original contribution by Darwin. Thus, Darwin’s is but one in a continuous series of responses to the challenges posed to biology by paleontology and biogeography since the end of the 18th century. (3) A 3-level reception analysis, finally, demonstrates why we speak of a Darwinian revolution nevertheless. (i) A quantitative analysis of nearly 2.000 biological articles reveals that Darwinian concepts where indeed an important theoretical innovation – but definitely not the most important of the time. (ii) When leaving the circle of biology and moving to scientists from other disciplines or educated laymen, the landscape changes. The further outside the biological community, the shallower the audience’s knowledge – and the more visible Darwin’s original contribution. After all, most of Darwin’s contribution can be found in the narrative and worldview of 19th century biology: the only level of knowledge which laymen receive.

This thesis addresses critical conceptions of Scottish literary development in the twentieth-century which inscribe realism as both the authenticating tradition and necessary telos of modern Scottish writing. To this end I identify and explore a Scottish ‘counter-tradition’ of modern uncanny fiction. Drawing critical attention to techniques of modal disruption in the works of a number of post-1970s Scottish writers gives cause to reconsider that realist teleology while positing a range of other continuities and tensions across modern Scottish literary history. The thesis initially defines the critical context for the project, considering how realism has come to be regarded as a medium of national literary representation. I go on to explore techniques of modal disruption and uncanny in texts by five Scottish writers, contesting ways in which habitual recourse to the realist tradition has obscured important aspects of their work. Chapter One investigates Ali Smith’s reimagining of ‘the uncanny guest’. While this trope has been employed by earlier Scottish writers, Smith redesigns it as part of a wider interrogation of the hyperreal twenty-first-century. Chapter Two considers two texts by James Robertson, each of which, I argue, invokes uncanny techniques familiar to readers of James Hogg and Robert Louis Stevenson in a way intended specifically to suggest concepts of national continuity and literary inheritance. Chapter Three argues that James Kelman’s political stance necessitates modal disruption as a means of relating intimate individual experience. Re-envisaging Kelman as a writer of the uncanny makes his central assimilation into the teleology of Scottish realism untenable, complicating the way his work has been positioned in the Scottish canon. Chapter Four analyses A.L. Kennedy’s So I Am Glad, delineating a similarity in the processes of repetition which result in both uncanny effects and the phenomenon of tradition, leading to Kennedy’s identification of an uncanny dimension in the concept of national tradition itself. Chapter Five considers the work of Alan Warner, in which the uncanny appears as an unsettling sense of significance embedded within the banal everyday, reflecting an existentialism which reaches beyond the national. In this way, I argue that habitual recourse to an inscribed realist tradition tends to obscure the range, complexity and instability of the realist techniques employed by the writers at issue, demonstrating how national continuities can be productively accommodated within wider, pluralistic analytical approaches.