Catalysis is an important field of study in chemical engineering and chemistry due to its application in a vast number of chemical transformations. Traditionally, catalysts have been developed as homogeneous molecular species or as heterogeneous insoluble materials. While homogeneous catalysts are typically very active and selective, they are difficult to recover. Conversely, heterogeneous catalysts are easy to recover and reuse, but they generally are less selective. To address these issues, the immobilization of homogeneous catalyst analogs onto solid supports has been a subject of research for the past few decades. Nonetheless, the effects of immobilization are still not completely predictable, and so continued effort is required to develop new immobilized catalysts as well as to develop a better understanding of how different parameters affect catalytic behavior. This dissertation presents the synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of new immobilized catalysts for different applications. First, a solid base catalyst supported on silica was developed and studied in the synthesis of cyclic carbonates from epoxides and carbon dioxide. Next, polymer and silica supported vanadium Schiff base catalysts were developed and evaluated for use in the oxidative kinetic resolution of alpha-hydroxy esters, an enantioselective reaction. Lastly, salen catalyst analogs with amine reactive functional groups were synthesized and characterized for grafting onto aminosilicas with different degrees of amine group isolation. The grafted catalysts were then tested to determine how catalyst spacing on the surface affects their behavior. Throughout the presentation of these results, comparisons are made amongst the new supported catalysts and relevant existing catalysts to discern general trends which could be applied to a wider range of immobilized catalysts. Finally, research opportunities for further improvements in these areas are suggested.

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This thesis deals with method development in asymmetric catalysis and specifically syntheses of enantioenriched O-functionalized cyanohydrins. The first part describes the development of a method for the synthesis of O‑alkoxycarbonylated and O-acylated cyanohydrins. Ethyl cyanoformate and acyl cyanides were added to aldehydes in a reaction catalyzed by a chiral dimeric Ti-salen complex together with a tertiary amine. High yields and enantioselectivities were in most cases obtained. Mechanistic studies were performed and a reaction mechanism was proposed. ­ The second part describes a method in which the undesired minor enantiomer in a Lewis acid–Lewis base-catalyzed acylcyanation is continuously recycled into prochiral starting material. Close to enantiopure O‑acylated cyanohydrins were obtained in high yields. The third part deals with asymmetric acylcyanations of ketones. Acetyl cyanide was found to add to α‑ketoesters in a reaction catalyzed by a chiral Lewis base. Yields up to 77% and 82% ee were obtained. The final part describes an enzymatic method for high-throughput analysis of O‑acylated cyanohydrins. The enantiomeric excess and conversion were determined for products obtained from a number of aromatic and aliphatic aldehydes. / QC 20100818

This thesis describes the synthesis and characterisation of novel mono and dinuclear homogenous [Zn(II)] and [In(III)] metal complexes. Their applications as catalysts for CO₂/epoxide or epoxide/anhydride ring opening copolymerisation and lactide ring opening polymerisation to generate polycarbonates and polyesters, respectively, are also reported. Chapter 3 reports the first indium phosphasalen catalysts for CO₂/cyclohexene oxide ring opening copolymerization. The catalysts are active at 1 bar pressure of CO₂ and are most effective without any co-catalyst. It is also possible to use the complexes to isolate and characterise the key intermediates in the catalytic cycle. Kinetic and spectroscopic analyses show that polymerisation proceeds via a rare cis-mononuclear coordination- insertion mechanism. Chapter 4 describes a series of mono and dinuclear zinc macrocycle catalysts with very high activities for the racemic lactide ring opening polymerisation. In most cases, the dinuclear zinc catalysts significantly out-perform the mono-zinc homologue. In addition, kinetic and spectroscopic investigations suggest a role for the ligand conformation in mediating rate. The catalysts perform very well under immortal conditions and operate at low catalyst loading, whilst conserving high activities. Chapter 5 presents four dinuclear zinc acetate salen catalysts for the ring opening copolymerisation of CO₂/cyclohexene oxide and phthalic anhydride/cyclohexene oxide. The catalysts show moderate activities for CO₂/epoxide copolymerisation but are highly active for epoxide/anhydride copolymerisation. Structure/activity relationship studies reveal that the more flexible and electron donating ligand displays the highest activity. Poly(ester-b-carbonate)s are also afforded using the most active catalyst in terpolymerisations of anhydride/epoxide/CO₂.

Die andauernden Entwicklungen auf dem Gebiet der kontrollierten Polymerisation haben zu zahlreichen neuen Methoden geführt, um klar definierte Polymere zu synthetisieren. Die dabei entstehenden molekularen Strukturen haben einen großen Einfluss auf die makroskopischen Eigenschaften. Hier werden Ansätze beschrieben um Polymerisation in situ zu steuern, was zur besseren Kontrolle von Polymereigenschaften führen soll. Zu diesem Zweck wurden etablierte organometallische Katalysatoren mit Azobenzolen funktionalisiert, um die Geometrie des Katalysators in situ zu ändern. Zuerst wurde ein Salen-Katalysator synthetisiert, der ein Azobenzol in der Nähe des aktiven Zentrums besitzt. Dieser zeigte vielversprechende photochemische Eigenschaften. Es wurde aber festgestellt, dass die Bestrahlung die LMCT Bande des Metalls anregt, was die Bindung des Polymers zum Katalysator beeinträchtigt. Um dieses Problem zu umgehen wurde ein dinuklearer Salen-Katalysator, mit einer besseren Bandentrennung, synthetisiert. Dieser Katalysator zeigte eine trans-cis-Isomerisierung, konnte photochemisch aber nicht zurück geschaltet werden, da die Absorptionsbanden des Azobenzols mit denen des Metalls überlappten. Daher wurde das Absorptionsverhalten des katalytischen Zentrums durch die Einführung eines rigiden durchkonjugierten Salphen Liganden geändert. Drei Systeme wurden synthetisiert, wobei der Katalysator mit einer Ethylenbrücke zwischen dem Azobenzol und dem Metallzentrum die besten Ergebnisse zeigte. Dieser Katalysator konnte reversibel geschaltet werden und zeigte auch einen Aktivitätsunterschied in der Polymerisation von b-Butyrolacton. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Aktivität des Katalysators um einen Faktor von 2,4 zwischen dem trans-Isomer und dem bestrahlten Reaktionsgesmisch erhöht werden konnte. Das gleiche Ergebnis wurde auch bei in situ Experimenten beobachtet. / Rapid developments in the field of controlled polymerization have led to numerous ways to produce well defined polymeric structures. This influence on the polymeric microstructure allowed a more efficient control over the macroscopic properties as well. Here, approaches are described to in situ control the polymerization outcome, which will eventually lead to a more defined manipulation of polymeric properties. For this purpose well established organometallic catalyst were functionalized with azobenzene moieties to alter the catalysts geometry in situ. First a salen catalyst with an azobenzene in close proximity to the active site was synthesized. The catalyst showed promising photochemical behavior, but irradiation of the catalyst would interfere with the binding of the polymeric chain, due to excitation of the metal’s LMCT band. To overcome this challenge a dinuclear salen catalysts with a better separation of the bands was synthesized that would allow control over cooperative effects. This catalysts showed trans-cis-isomerization but no photochemical back-reaction, due to an overlap of the absorption bands of the cis-azobenzene with the metal moiety. Therefore, the absorption of the catalytically active moiety was altered by introducing a rigid fully conjugated salphen system as the ligand. Three systems were synthesized, of which an ethylene bridged ligand showed the best results. It allowed reversible switching between both states and showed an activity change in the polymerization of b-butyrolactone. The catalyst showed an increased activity by a factor of 2.4 in the trans-isomer compared to the photostationary state and it also allowed for an in-situ switching between both states without affecting the efficiency of the system.

L’objectif de ce travail étaient le développement de catalyseurs hétérogènes efficaces pour promouvoir des réactions asymétriques, en utilisant la polymérisation oxydante ou la formation de polymères de coordination. De nouveaux complexes de salen Co(III) chiraux modifiés par des groupements aromatiques sur les position 5, 5’ ont été préparés et testés dans le dédoublement cinétique hydrolytique (HKR) des époxydes terminaux en conditions homogènes. Ces complexes ont été ensuite engagés dans les polymérisations oxydantes électrochimiques ou chimiques, et une stratégie de copolymérisation a fourni des polymères chiraux très efficaces et stables pour catalyser l’HKR dans des conditions hétérogènes. Nous avons alors cherché à préparer un catalyseur capable de catalyser deux réactions en cascade, en copolymérisant deux complexes de salen portant des métaux différents. Pendant ces études, les complexes de salen Mn ont révélé leur participation active à la réaction d’HKR des époxydes terminaux catalysée par les complexes de salen Co(III), en augmentant l’excès énantiomérique du produit de façon significative. Les études mécanistiques ont été ensuite réalisées pour tenter de comprendre le rôle des complexes de Mn dans cette réaction. De plus, des complexes de salen fonctionnalisés par le groupement pyridine ou le groupement de type acide isophtalique ont été synthétisés. Ces complexes ont été utilisés pour préparer de nouveaux réseaux de polymères de coordination poreux chiraux (collaboration avec l’équipe LCI de l’ICMMO et l’Institut Lavoisier à Versailles), qui sont ensuite testés comme catalyseurs hétérogènes dans la réaction de Henry asymétrique et la réaction d’HKR. / The aim of this work was to prepare new chiral heterogeneous catalysts for asymmetric catalysis by oxidative polymerization of chiral organometallic complexes or by formation of chiral metal organic frameworks. New chiral salen Co(III) complexes modified by oxidizable aromatic groups at position 5,5’ have been prepared and tested as homogeneous catalysts in the Hydrolytic Kinetic Resolution (HKR) of terminal epoxides. These complexes have also been engaged into the oxidative electrochemical and chemical polymerization, and a copolymerization strategy has afforded very efficient and stable heterogeneous catalysts for the HKR. The idea of copolymerization has then been extended to the copolymerization of two salen complexes with different metals, which is expected to promote successively two different asymmetric transformations. During preliminary investigations, the salen Mn complexes have been found to be able to enhance the catalytic performance of salen Co(III) complexes in the HKR by increasing significantly the enantiomeric excess of the products. Mechanistic studies have thus been realized to understand the role of salen Mn complexes in this reaction. Besides, some chiral salen complexes functionalized by pyridine or isophtalic acid groups have been synthesized for the preparation of new chiral metal organic frameworks (collaboration with LCI of ICMMO and Institut Lavoisier of Versailles), which have also been tested in the asymmetric Henry reaction and the HKR as heterogeneous catalysts.

L'objectif de ce travail étaient le développement de catalyseurs hétérogènes efficaces pour promouvoir des réactions asymétriques, en utilisant la polymérisation oxydante ou la formation de polymères de coordination. De nouveaux complexes de salen Co(III) chiraux modifiés par des groupements aromatiques sur les position 5, 5' ont été préparés et testés dans le dédoublement cinétique hydrolytique (HKR) des époxydes terminaux en conditions homogènes. Ces complexes ont été ensuite engagés dans les polymérisations oxydantes électrochimiques ou chimiques, et une stratégie de copolymérisation a fourni des polymères chiraux très efficaces et stables pour catalyser l'HKR dans des conditions hétérogènes. Nous avons alors cherché à préparer un catalyseur capable de catalyser deux réactions en cascade, en copolymérisant deux complexes de salen portant des métaux différents. Pendant ces études, les complexes de salen Mn ont révélé leur participation active à la réaction d'HKR des époxydes terminaux catalysée par les complexes de salen Co(III), en augmentant l'excès énantiomérique du produit de façon significative. Les études mécanistiques ont été ensuite réalisées pour tenter de comprendre le rôle des complexes de Mn dans cette réaction. De plus, des complexes de salen fonctionnalisés par le groupement pyridine ou le groupement de type acide isophtalique ont été synthétisés. Ces complexes ont été utilisés pour préparer de nouveaux réseaux de polymères de coordination poreux chiraux (collaboration avec l'équipe LCI de l'ICMMO et l'Institut Lavoisier à Versailles), qui sont ensuite testés comme catalyseurs hétérogènes dans la réaction de Henry asymétrique et la réaction d'HKR.

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I uppsatsen görs en närmare undersökning utav den schism som skall ha uppstått mellan intendent F. W. Scholander och snickaren Olof Petersson, vid restaureringen av Kungsmaket på Kalmar slott 1856 – 1861. Historien fortsätter därefter tills samarbetet upphör 1877. Vid restaureringen stod Scholander som ansvarig ledare från Överintendentsämbetet i Stockholm. Medan Petersson var arbetsledare i Kalmar. Efter färdigställandet ville Petersson visa upp Kungsmakets dörr i en utställning för nygjorda arbeten i London. Vilken förmodas vara Världsutställningen 1862. Men hindrades av Scholander som ansåg rummet helt varande från 1500-talet. Från att ha varit positiv till resultatet med Kungsmaket ändrade Scholander därefter inställning och ansåg att Petersson gjort stora felaktigheter. Schismen kom därpå att leda till fler oenigheter. Uppsatsen syfte är att undersöka om det finns fler orsaker till en schism emellan parterna än vad som framkommit i tidigare litteratur. Samt varför de hade olika uppfattningar om vilken tidsperiod Kungsmaket tillhörde. Den syftar också till att belysa personerna bakom schismen. Främst Peterssons livs- och yrkesbakgrund och hur schismen påverkat honom. En genomgång av tiden under och efter Kungsmakets restauration redovisas främst genom primära källor och korrespondens från tiden. Där även restaurationen av Gyllene salen delvis inkluderas. Till detta kommer en orientering och undersökning av Scholanders och Peterssons bakgrunder. Samt beskrivning av Kungsmakets interiör. / The essay is a study about the schism that occurred between the Superintendent F. W. Scholander, from the authority of ÖIÄ, and the Carpenter Olof Petersson, during the restoration of the King’s Chamber at Kalmar Castle from 1856 to 1861. The story then continues until the cooperation ends around 1877. During the restoration Scholander was the responsible leader, through correspondence from Stockholm, while Petersson was foreman in Kalmar. After the restoration was completed, Petersson wanted to show the door of the King’s Chamber in an exhibition of newly made works in London. In this essay believed to be the International Exhibition of 1862. But he was then prevented by Scholander who thought the room totally as a remainder from the 1500s. From being positive to the result with the restoration, Scholander then changed setting and considered that Petersson had made major errors. After that the schism lead to more disagreements. Through an analysis of primary sources and letter correspondence from the time, the events are reported during and after the restoration of the King’s Chamber. In which the restoration of the Golden hall is partly included. Added to this there is an orientation and examination of Scholander´s and Peterson's backgrounds, and a description of the interior of the King’s Chamber. The essay aims to examine whether there are more reasons for a schism between the parties than what has emerged in the previous literature. And why they had different views on what period the King’s Chamber belonged. It also aims to show the people behind the schism. Mainly Peterson's life and professional background and how the schism affected him.