Bakgrund: Det finns åtskilliga studier gjorda på kroppsbyggare och fitnessatleter där kroppens fysiologiska funktioner och nutritionens betydelse studerats. Kroppen står i fokus och blir det objekt som undersöks. En stor kunskapslucka inom forskningen är dock fitnessatleters upplevelser kring olika fenomen och företeelser som är en stor del av deras liv. Motivet till att genomföra denna studie, väcktes utifrån denna iakttagelse. Syfte: Syftet med studien är att skapa kunskap om unga fitnessatleters upplevelser kring kroppsideal, självobjektifiering och psykosocial hälsa inom fitnesskulturen. Teoretisk referensram: Studien har sin utgångspunkt i den sociokulturella teorin, praktikgemenskaper, samt objektifierings- och självobjektifieringsteorin. De två förstnämnda teorierna innebär att individen lär sig och formas utifrån den sociokultur denne befinner sig i, med hjälp av artefakter och redskap. Den sistnämnda teorin bygger på att individens kropp betraktas likt ett objekt, vilket reduceras till något som är till för andra att uppskatta eller recensera. Metod: Den kvalitativa empiriinsamlingen bestod av intervjuer. Då data skulle analyseras, användes diskursanalys som verktyg för att filtrera transkriberad data från intervjuerna. Utifrån detta kunde diskurser identifieras, som sedan delades upp i olika kategorier/teman. Resultat: Av studien framkom det olika diskurser kring kroppsideal, självobjektifiering och psykosocial påverkan. Samtliga diskurser innefattade sociala medier som påverkan. ”Förväntningar som press”, ”det vältränade kroppsidealet” och ”kroppen som identitet” var diskurser som alla kopplades till sociala medier. Tydligt framkom att det finns en växelverkan i skapandet av kroppsideal, självobjektifiering och psykosocial påverkan, mellan fitnessatleters exponerade kroppar i sociala medier och omgivningens syn av dessa. Konklusion: Den diskurs som framkom tydligast var förväntningar som press kopplat till sociala medier. Exponering av den egna kroppen i sociala medier bidrar till förväntningar och en negativ press på den unga fitnessatleten. Framtida forskning skulle möjligen fokusera på att studera praktiska instanser baserade på mentala verktyg som tilldelas fitnessatleterna, för att på så vis få dessa att utveckla eller bibehålla en sund inställning till sporten och kulturen.

The first aim of this study was to develop a research based, integrated, secondary prevention programme, called the Weight Over-concern and Well-being (WOW) programme, for the reduction of Subclinical Eating Disorder (SED) symptoms, associated traits and negative mood states, and the promotion of psychological well-being (PWB) in female students. Consequently the second aim was to determine the effectiveness of the WOW-programme on its own, in comparison with a combined Tomatis Method of sound stimulation (Tomatis, 1990) and WOW-programme, regarding the reduction of SED-symptoms, associated traits and negative mood states; the promotion of PWB; and outcome maintenance. The last aim was to obtain a deeper understanding and "insiders' perspective" of the lived experience of SED, through an interpretative phenomenological inquiry (Smith & Osborn, 2003). The motivation for the current study is a need for research based, integrated, risk-protective, secondary prevention programmes from a social-developmental perspective for female university students (Garner, 2004; Phelps, Sapia, Nathanson & Nelson, 2000; Polivy & Herman, 2002), given their risk status (Edwards & Moldan, 2004; Senekal, Steyn, Mashego & Nel, 2001; Wassenaar, Le Grange, Winship & Lachenicht, 2000). Concurrently in-depth descriptions from an "insiders' perspective" on the lived experience of SED are non-existent and require interpretative phenomenological study (Brocki & Wearden, 2006). Consequently this thesis consists of three articles, namely: (i) Development of a secondary prevention programme for female university students with Subclinical Eating Disorder, (ii) A secondary prevention programme for female students with Subclinical Eating Disorder: a comparative evaluation; and (iii) Lived experiences of Subclinical Eating Disorder: female students' perceptions. The research context comprised Subclinical Eating Disorder, secondary prevention and Positive Psychology. The first article, Development of a secondary prevention programme for female university students with Subclinical Eating Disorder (Kirsten, Du Plessis & Du Toit, 2007a), is qualitative in nature, and narrates a process of participatory action research followed to develop the WOW-programme. This social process of knowledge construction, embedded in Social Constructivist theory (Koch, Selim & Kralik, 2002), gradually revealed best clinical practice, and in retrospect, evolved over four phases. Phase One comprised experiential learning based on personal experiences with SED as undergraduate student and interaction with "participant researchers" as scientist practitioner (Strieker, 2002), resulting in a provisional risk model of intervention. Phase Two, a formal pilot study (Du Plessis, Vermeulen & Kirsten, 2004), afforded an evaluation of ideas generated in Phase One through a three-group pre-post-test design. Outcomes of Phase Two informed Phase Three, an integration of prior learning with Positive Psychology theory and clinical practice, resulting in a risk-protective model of prevention. Theoretical assumptions previously constructed were integrated and operationalised during Phase Four, into the final 9-session WOW-programme. In conclusion the process of knowledge construction was rigorous, despite the small overall sample size (n=28), since data saturation occurred within that sample. Although the multitude of aims involved in each session of the WOW-programme could be seen as unrealistic, in some direct or indirect way, they were addressed by means of relevant interventions due to the integrative approach. Thus future refinement is essential. Finally, despite aforementioned concerns, the WOW-programme proved to be robust on its own in reducing SED-symptoms and associated traits and enhancing PWB, as described in the second article of this thesis. The second article, A secondary prevention programme for female students with Subclinical Eating Disorder: a comparative evaluation (Kirsten, Du Plessis & Du Toit, 2007b), describes the outcomes of the WOW-programme on its own, evaluated comparatively with a combined Tomatis sound stimulation and WOW-programme. In this article the research aims were to determine: (i) whether participation in the combined sound stimulation and WOW-programme (Group 1); and (ii) participation in a WOW-programme only (Group 2), would lead to statistically significant reductions in SED-symptoms, psychological traits associated with eating disorders and negative mood states, and enhancement of PWB; (iii) whether results of Groups 1 and 2 would exceed results of a non-intervention control group (Group 3) practically significantly; and (iv) whether programme outcomes for Groups 1 and 2 would be retained at four-month follow-up evaluation. A mixed method design (Creswell, 2003; Morse, 2003) was used, including a three-group pre-post-test (n=45) and multiple case study (n=30) design. Various questionnaires measuring SED-symptoms, associated traits, negative mood states and PWB were completed. Qualitative data were obtained by means of metaphor drawings, letters to and from the "SED-problem", focus group interviews, the researchers' reflective field notes and individual semi-structured feedback questionnaires (Morse, 2003). Participation in Groups 1 and 2 proved effective, since decreases in SED-symptoms, associated traits, most negative mood states, and increases in PWB differed practically significantly from the results of Group 3. Outcomes for Groups 1 and 2 were maintained at four-month follow-up evaluation. Qualitative findings provided depth, support and trustworthiness to quantitative findings in light of the small sample size, and highlighted the value of using a mixed method design in prevention programming. It was concluded that the WOW-programme on its own, was an effective secondary prevention programme, since it led to reduced SED-symptoms, associated psychological traits and enhanced PWB, with retention of gains at four-months follow-up evaluation. The combined programme involving Tomatis stimulation and WOW-intervention proved to be even more effective, thus the complimentary role of Tomatis stimulation was demonstrated. However, the cost-effectiveness and comparative brevity of the WOW-programme rendered it the programme of choice regarding individuals with SED. Findings showed that conceptually, pathogenic and salutogenic perspectives can be successfully combined into a risk-protective model of secondary prevention. Lastly, the WOW-programme may even prove useful as an enrichment programme for female students in general. The third article, Lived experiences of Subclinical Eating Disorder: female students' perceptions (Kirsten, Du Plessis & Du Toit, 2007c), provides a qualitative, in-depth perspective on the lived experience of SED of 30 white, undergraduate females, purposively sampled. In this interpretative phenomenological, multiple case study (Brocki & Wearden, 2006), Groups 1 and 2 of the aforementioned primary study in the second article were used, since they fitted the criteria of "good informants" and were able to answer the research question (Morse, 2003). Further sampling was deemed unnecessary since data saturation occurred within their written and verbal responses and no negative cases were found. Rich individual qualitative data, further clarified through focus groups, emerged from graphic colour representations of lived SED, explanatory written records and "correspondence" with and from their "SED problem" (Gilligan, 2000; Loock, Myburgh, & Poggenpoel, 2003; White & Epston, 1990). Four main categories, characterised by serious intra-, interpersonal, existential and body image concerns were subdivided into seven subcategories, namely: Personal Brokenness, Personal Shame, Perceived Personal Inadequacy and Enslavement, Existential Vacuum, Perceived Social Pressure, Perceived Social Isolation and Body-image Dysfunction. Results were indicative of underestimation of SED-severity, its comprehensive detrimental impact on participants' PWB and high risk for escalation into full-blown eating disorders. It was concluded that the lived experiences of SED depicted the severity of SED-symptoms; descriptions resonated well with most of their pre-programme mean scores; and their risk status and need for contextually and developmentally relevant secondary prevention programmes were highlighted by the findings. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2008.

The first aim of this study was to develop a research based, integrated, secondary prevention programme, called the Weight Over-concern and Well-being (WOW) programme, for the reduction of Subclinical Eating Disorder (SED) symptoms, associated traits and negative mood states, and the promotion of psychological well-being (PWB) in female students. Consequently the second aim was to determine the effectiveness of the WOW-programme on its own, in comparison with a combined Tomatis Method of sound stimulation (Tomatis, 1990) and WOW-programme, regarding the reduction of SED-symptoms, associated traits and negative mood states; the promotion of PWB; and outcome maintenance. The last aim was to obtain a deeper understanding and "insiders' perspective" of the lived experience of SED, through an interpretative phenomenological inquiry (Smith & Osborn, 2003). The motivation for the current study is a need for research based, integrated, risk-protective, secondary prevention programmes from a social-developmental perspective for female university students (Garner, 2004; Phelps, Sapia, Nathanson & Nelson, 2000; Polivy & Herman, 2002), given their risk status (Edwards & Moldan, 2004; Senekal, Steyn, Mashego & Nel, 2001; Wassenaar, Le Grange, Winship & Lachenicht, 2000). Concurrently in-depth descriptions from an "insiders' perspective" on the lived experience of SED are non-existent and require interpretative phenomenological study (Brocki & Wearden, 2006). Consequently this thesis consists of three articles, namely: (i) Development of a secondary prevention programme for female university students with Subclinical Eating Disorder, (ii) A secondary prevention programme for female students with Subclinical Eating Disorder: a comparative evaluation; and (iii) Lived experiences of Subclinical Eating Disorder: female students' perceptions. The research context comprised Subclinical Eating Disorder, secondary prevention and Positive Psychology. The first article, Development of a secondary prevention programme for female university students with Subclinical Eating Disorder (Kirsten, Du Plessis & Du Toit, 2007a), is qualitative in nature, and narrates a process of participatory action research followed to develop the WOW-programme. This social process of knowledge construction, embedded in Social Constructivist theory (Koch, Selim & Kralik, 2002), gradually revealed best clinical practice, and in retrospect, evolved over four phases. Phase One comprised experiential learning based on personal experiences with SED as undergraduate student and interaction with "participant researchers" as scientist practitioner (Strieker, 2002), resulting in a provisional risk model of intervention. Phase Two, a formal pilot study (Du Plessis, Vermeulen & Kirsten, 2004), afforded an evaluation of ideas generated in Phase One through a three-group pre-post-test design. Outcomes of Phase Two informed Phase Three, an integration of prior learning with Positive Psychology theory and clinical practice, resulting in a risk-protective model of prevention. Theoretical assumptions previously constructed were integrated and operationalised during Phase Four, into the final 9-session WOW-programme. In conclusion the process of knowledge construction was rigorous, despite the small overall sample size (n=28), since data saturation occurred within that sample. Although the multitude of aims involved in each session of the WOW-programme could be seen as unrealistic, in some direct or indirect way, they were addressed by means of relevant interventions due to the integrative approach. Thus future refinement is essential. Finally, despite aforementioned concerns, the WOW-programme proved to be robust on its own in reducing SED-symptoms and associated traits and enhancing PWB, as described in the second article of this thesis. The second article, A secondary prevention programme for female students with Subclinical Eating Disorder: a comparative evaluation (Kirsten, Du Plessis & Du Toit, 2007b), describes the outcomes of the WOW-programme on its own, evaluated comparatively with a combined Tomatis sound stimulation and WOW-programme. In this article the research aims were to determine: (i) whether participation in the combined sound stimulation and WOW-programme (Group 1); and (ii) participation in a WOW-programme only (Group 2), would lead to statistically significant reductions in SED-symptoms, psychological traits associated with eating disorders and negative mood states, and enhancement of PWB; (iii) whether results of Groups 1 and 2 would exceed results of a non-intervention control group (Group 3) practically significantly; and (iv) whether programme outcomes for Groups 1 and 2 would be retained at four-month follow-up evaluation. A mixed method design (Creswell, 2003; Morse, 2003) was used, including a three-group pre-post-test (n=45) and multiple case study (n=30) design. Various questionnaires measuring SED-symptoms, associated traits, negative mood states and PWB were completed. Qualitative data were obtained by means of metaphor drawings, letters to and from the "SED-problem", focus group interviews, the researchers' reflective field notes and individual semi-structured feedback questionnaires (Morse, 2003). Participation in Groups 1 and 2 proved effective, since decreases in SED-symptoms, associated traits, most negative mood states, and increases in PWB differed practically significantly from the results of Group 3. Outcomes for Groups 1 and 2 were maintained at four-month follow-up evaluation. Qualitative findings provided depth, support and trustworthiness to quantitative findings in light of the small sample size, and highlighted the value of using a mixed method design in prevention programming. It was concluded that the WOW-programme on its own, was an effective secondary prevention programme, since it led to reduced SED-symptoms, associated psychological traits and enhanced PWB, with retention of gains at four-months follow-up evaluation. The combined programme involving Tomatis stimulation and WOW-intervention proved to be even more effective, thus the complimentary role of Tomatis stimulation was demonstrated. However, the cost-effectiveness and comparative brevity of the WOW-programme rendered it the programme of choice regarding individuals with SED. Findings showed that conceptually, pathogenic and salutogenic perspectives can be successfully combined into a risk-protective model of secondary prevention. Lastly, the WOW-programme may even prove useful as an enrichment programme for female students in general. The third article, Lived experiences of Subclinical Eating Disorder: female students' perceptions (Kirsten, Du Plessis & Du Toit, 2007c), provides a qualitative, in-depth perspective on the lived experience of SED of 30 white, undergraduate females, purposively sampled. In this interpretative phenomenological, multiple case study (Brocki & Wearden, 2006), Groups 1 and 2 of the aforementioned primary study in the second article were used, since they fitted the criteria of "good informants" and were able to answer the research question (Morse, 2003). Further sampling was deemed unnecessary since data saturation occurred within their written and verbal responses and no negative cases were found. Rich individual qualitative data, further clarified through focus groups, emerged from graphic colour representations of lived SED, explanatory written records and "correspondence" with and from their "SED problem" (Gilligan, 2000; Loock, Myburgh, & Poggenpoel, 2003; White & Epston, 1990). Four main categories, characterised by serious intra-, interpersonal, existential and body image concerns were subdivided into seven subcategories, namely: Personal Brokenness, Personal Shame, Perceived Personal Inadequacy and Enslavement, Existential Vacuum, Perceived Social Pressure, Perceived Social Isolation and Body-image Dysfunction. Results were indicative of underestimation of SED-severity, its comprehensive detrimental impact on participants' PWB and high risk for escalation into full-blown eating disorders. It was concluded that the lived experiences of SED depicted the severity of SED-symptoms; descriptions resonated well with most of their pre-programme mean scores; and their risk status and need for contextually and developmentally relevant secondary prevention programmes were highlighted by the findings. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2008.

Submitted by Mariana Lima (mariana.lima@fgvmail.br) on 2015-11-26T21:02:54Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação Mariana Braga de Lima Mex2014.pdf: 14412514 bytes, checksum: c1117481eece896b474e8ef644ae0f52 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Janete de Oliveira Feitosa (janete.feitosa@fgv.br) on 2015-12-07T12:00:56Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação Mariana Braga de Lima Mex2014.pdf: 14412514 bytes, checksum: c1117481eece896b474e8ef644ae0f52 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Maria Almeida (maria.socorro@fgv.br) on 2015-12-09T18:52:34Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação Mariana Braga de Lima Mex2014.pdf: 14412514 bytes, checksum: c1117481eece896b474e8ef644ae0f52 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2015-12-09T18:52:57Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação Mariana Braga de Lima Mex2014.pdf: 14412514 bytes, checksum: c1117481eece896b474e8ef644ae0f52 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-11-10 / When exploring new perspectives on the impact of non-idealized vs. idealized body image in advertising, studies have focused mainly on body size, i.e., thin vs. heavy (Antioco et al., 2012; Smeesters & Mandel, 2006). Age remains largely unexplored, and the vast majority of ads in the market depict young models. The purpose of this research is therefore to investigate which images in advertisements – young or mature models – are more persuasive for older women (40+ years old). In this investigation, two studies were conducted. The first part was an exploratory analysis with a qualitative approach, which in turn helped to formulate the hypothesis tested in the subsequent experiment. The results of the in-depth interviews suggested a conflict over notions of imprisonment (need to follow beauty standards) and freedom (wish to deviate). The results of the experiment showed essentially that among older consumers, ads portraying older models were as persuasive as ads portraying younger models. Limitations and future research are discussed.

On a routine and daily basis, women are exposed to sexually objectifying experiences, which result in a number of harmful psychosocial outcomes (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997). Five-hundred and forty-sex women attending a large, Southeastern university participated in this study that investigated a conceptual model of how childhood sexual abuse (CSA) contributes to sexual risk behaviors (SRBs) via self-objectification (S0). In order to assess the causal relationships among variables, measured variable path analyses were conducted in order to test two theoretical models. The following instruments were used in this investigation: the Sexual Abuse Subscale of the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (a measure assessing experiences of childhood sexual abuse [Bernstein, Stein, Newcomb, Walker, Pogge, Ahluvia et al., 2003]); the Body Surveillance Subscale of the Objectified Body Consciousness Scale (a measure assessing self-objectification [McKinley & Hyde, 1996]); the Body Shame Subscale of the Objectified Body Consciousness Scale (a measure assessing body shame [McKinley & Hyde, 1996]); the Toronto Alexithymia Scale-20 (assesses alexithymic symptoms, or difficulty identifying, describing, and expressing one’s emotions [Bagby, Parker, & Taylor, 1994]), the Contraceptive Self-Efficacy Scale (assesses overall sexual self-efficacy, such as the ability to insist upon sexual protection [Levinson, 1986]), and the Sexual Risk Survey (assesses risky sexual practices [Turkchik & Garske, 2009]). Results revealed that the data fit the second model better than the first. Specifically, data revealed that CSA directly predicted SRBs and was not mediated via SO, but was partially mediated by alexithymia and body shame. That is, CSA predicted increased alexithymia and body shame. Increased alexithymia predicted SRBs, whereas body shame decreased SRBs. Results also revealed that alexithymia and body shame mediated the relationship between SO and SRBs. Specifically, self-objectification led to increased alexithymia and body shame, and alexithymia increased SRBs while body shame decreased SRBs. Last, results revealed that body shame fully mediated the relationship between both CSA and SO and sexual self-efficacy. Pathways were significant at the p < .05 level.

No description available.

Tidigare forskning visar att självobjektifiering kan ha negativa effekter på individens kroppsuppfattning och leda till bland annat lägre självkänsla, ätstörningar och depression. Enligt objektifieringsteorin innebär objektifiering att betrakta någon eller något som ett objekt när det inte är det och att bedöma och beskåda sig själv utifrån någon annans perspektiv. Självobjektifiering kopplas i huvudsak samman med kvinnor vilket kan bero på traditionella könsroller och att mindre forskning har gjorts på män inom samma fält. Studiens syfte var att undersöka eventuella samband mellan självobjektifiering och kroppsuppfattning samt om det skiljer sig mellan kvinnor och män. Med hjälp av välbeprövade instrument, ett standardiserat frågeformulär och kvantitativ design har vi utformat en tvärsnittsstudie som utförts på det svenska företaget Folkspel i Göteborg (N= 113). Studiens resultat visar att det finns ett samband mellan självobjektifiering och kroppsuppfattning vilket stämmer överens med tidigare forskning. Resultatet visar också att sambandet inte nödvändigtvis behöver vara i negativ art, framför allt när det kommer till män då en viss del av självobjektifiering kan ha en positiv effekt på individens kroppsuppfattning. / Previous research shows that self-objectification can have negative effects on the individual's body image and lead to for example lower self-esteem, eating disorders and depression. According to the objectification theory, objectification means considering someone or something as an object when it is not, and to judge and view oneself from someone else's perspective. Self-objectification is mainly associated with women which may be due to traditional gender roles and the fact that less research has been done on men in the same field. The purpose of the study was to investigate possible connections between self-objectification and body image and whether it differs between men and women. Using well-proven instruments, a standardized questionnaire and quantitative design, we designed a cross-sectional study that was carried out at the Swedish company Folkspel in Gothenburg (N= 113). The result of the study shows that there is a connection between self-objectification and body image which agrees with previous studies. The result also shows that the connection does not necessarily have to be, in a negative sense especially when it comes to men, as a certain amount of self-objectification can have positive effects on the individual's body image.

(In English): This master's thesis examines the type and frequency of activities on social networks and video games with an emphasis on activities that support the objectification of one's own body or are in direct connection with it. The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of these activities on the Czech national-wide sample, focusing on respondents who show signs of eating disorders. The evaluation was based on a questionnaire survey of more than 1000 respondents and the results were analyzed mainly by using contingency tables. Based on the results of this research, it is not possible to confirm a direct relationship between self-objectification and ways of new media usage, but some activities correlate directly with people who show an unhealthy relationship with their own bodies. In conclusion, specific steps are proposed for a more suitable survey of self-objectification and recommendations for further research.

Rapid escalation of Subclinical Eating Disorders (SED) in the form of high levels of body–dissatisfaction (BD) and drive for thinness (DT) globally and locally, and the at–risk status of university females are underscored by recent studies. As yet there exists no South African program tailored to the needs of afflicted female students and which includes a risk–protective focus grounded in Positive Psychology theory. In this chapter a theoretical overview on the nature and definition of SED, its prevalence and the rationale for a risk–protective focus grounded in Positive Psychology theory are provided. Thereafter three preliminary South African studies, namely two correlation studies (De Pãz Fransisco, 2007; Kirsten, Du Plessis & Swanepoel, 2010) and the Weight Over–concern and Well–being program of Kirsten, Du Plessis and Du Toit (2007) are discussed. Findings of these preliminary studies highlight the promise of utilizing Positive Psychology theoretical approaches to practically significantly reduce risk factors and promote protective factors. As such, Well–being therapy (Fava & Ruini, 2003) that promotes the six dimensions of psychological well–being (Ryff & Keyes, 1995), and Self–Determination Theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000) that can promote true self–esteem in the form of self–determination and mindfulness (Kabat–Zinn, 1998), with its inherent self–compassion, kindness and self–forgiving manner, show promise. More in–depth studies with larger samples are however needed. / Thesis (M.A. (Clinical Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.

Rapid escalation of Subclinical Eating Disorders (SED) in the form of high levels of body–dissatisfaction (BD) and drive for thinness (DT) globally and locally, and the at–risk status of university females are underscored by recent studies. As yet there exists no South African program tailored to the needs of afflicted female students and which includes a risk–protective focus grounded in Positive Psychology theory. In this chapter a theoretical overview on the nature and definition of SED, its prevalence and the rationale for a risk–protective focus grounded in Positive Psychology theory are provided. Thereafter three preliminary South African studies, namely two correlation studies (De Pãz Fransisco, 2007; Kirsten, Du Plessis & Swanepoel, 2010) and the Weight Over–concern and Well–being program of Kirsten, Du Plessis and Du Toit (2007) are discussed. Findings of these preliminary studies highlight the promise of utilizing Positive Psychology theoretical approaches to practically significantly reduce risk factors and promote protective factors. As such, Well–being therapy (Fava & Ruini, 2003) that promotes the six dimensions of psychological well–being (Ryff & Keyes, 1995), and Self–Determination Theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000) that can promote true self–esteem in the form of self–determination and mindfulness (Kabat–Zinn, 1998), with its inherent self–compassion, kindness and self–forgiving manner, show promise. More in–depth studies with larger samples are however needed. / Thesis (M.A. (Clinical Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.