Linhagens celulares humanas tem despertado interesse como plataformas de produção de proteínas terapêuticas recombinantes por sua capacidade de realizar modificações pós-traducionais complexas e de modo similar à humana, sem gerar epítopos imunogênicos como ocorre com proteínas produzidas em células de mamíferos. Para a produção de uma proteína com correta qualidade terapêutica, as agências regulatórias recomendam processos livres de componentes animais de modo a evitar contaminação com vírus e príons. Deste modo, esse trabalho visa a produção do fator VII da coagulação sanguínea recombinante (FVIIr) utilizada no tratamento de hemofílicos com inibidores em células humanas adaptadas para meios de cultura livres de soro fetal bovino. As linhagens humanas SK-Hep-1, HKB-11 e Huh-7 foram adaptadas para suspensão e meios livres de soro fetal bovino (SFB). Essas células adaptadas foram transfectadas de forma transiente com o vetor lentiviral p1054-GFP e o reagente polietilenimina. No entanto, a baixa eficiência de transfecção nas células SK-Hep-1 e Huh-7 mostraram que essas linhagens são difíceis de transfectar por esse método, e mesmo a transfecção da célula HKB-11 só foi possível após a variação de alguns parâmetros, resultando em uma transfecção de 49,5% de células HKB-11 GFP-positivas. Desta forma, a expressão estável foi avaliada e as células adaptadas foram transduzidas com um ciclo de lentivírus (MOI = 1) contendo o vetor p1054-FVII. Foram observadas porcentagens de células GFP-positivas acima de 35% nas três linhagens celulares humanas modificadas. As células transduzidas foram submetidas a dois processos de sorting por citometria de fluxo, no qual a população obtida apresentava mais de 90% de células GFP-positivas. As três células foram avaliadas com relação à expressão de FVIIr após a adição de vitamina K no cultivo, no entanto, não foi possível detectar níveis de FVIIr no sobrenadante de 48 horas do cultivo dessas células pelo teste ELISA. As células foram transduzidas com um segundo ciclo de lentivírus (MOI = 2). A quantificação por ELISA do sobrenadante de 48 horas de cultivo das três células detectou 240,96 ng/mL, 217,42 ng/mL e 78,46 ng/mL de FVII total, respectivamente, nos cultivos das células HKB-11-F7-2C, SK-Hep-1-F7-2C e Huh-7-F7-2C. A expressão relativa de RNA mensageiro por RT-PCR também foi observada nos três cultivos. Paralelamente, foi analisado o proteoma das três células adaptadas e não-adaptadas em triplicata sendo identificadas de forma abundante proteínas do citoesqueleto, do metabolismo celular, da síntese, enovelamento e degradação de proteínas, relacionadas à apoptose, ao ciclo celular e ao crescimento, proteínas contra estresse oxidativo e osmótico, com ação antioxidante, entre outras. / Human cell lines have attracted great interest as a plarform for recombinant therapeutic proteins production, due their ability to perform complex posttranslational modification in a similar manner to human proteins. These proteins do not carry immunogenic epitopes as occurs with proteins produced in mammalian cells. These therapeutic proteins should be produced in a animal-free process avoiding virus and prion contamination, as recommended by regulatory agencies for quality control. Thus, this work aims the production of recombinant blood coagulation factor VII (rFVII) used in the treatment of hemophiliacs with inhibitors in human cell lines adapted to serum-free suspension cultures. Human cell lines SK-Hep-1, HKB-11 and Huh-7 were adapted to suspension and serum-free media. These adapted cells were transiently transfected with p1054-GFP lentiviral vector and the polyethyleneimine reagent. However, low transfection efficiency in SK-Hep-1 and Huh-7 cells showed that these cells are difficult to transfect by this method, and even transfection of HKB-11 cell was only possible after varying some parameters, resulting in a 49,5% HKB-11 GFP-positive cells. Stable transfection was assessed and adapted cells were transduced with lentivirus particles containing p1054-FVII vector in one cycle (MOI=1). Percentages of GFP-positive cells above 35% were observed in three modified human cell lines. Transduced cells were sorted by FACS and more than 90% of GFP-positive cells were obtained. The expression of rFVII were evaluated by ELISA test after vitamin K supplementation, however, it was not possible to detect FVII levels in the 48 hour culture supernatant. Cells were transduced again with a second lentivirus cycle (MOI = 2). ELISA quantification of the 48 hour culture supernatant detected 240,96 ng/mL, 217,42 ng/mL and 78,46 ng/mL total FVII, respectively, in the cultures of HKB-11-F7-2C, SK-Hep-1-F7-2C and Huh-7-F7-2C cells. Relative expression of mRNA by RT-PCR was also observed in the three cultures assessed. In parallel, a proteomic analysis of adapted and non-adapted cells was performed in triplicate. Proteins related to cellular metabolism, cytoskeletal structure, apoptosis, cell cycle and cell growth, against oxidative and osmotic stress, antioxidant action were found.

Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit ist die photophysikalische Untersuchung Photosensibilisator-beladener Nanopartikel als Transportsysteme für aktives und passives Tumor-Targeting. Zu diesem Zweck wurden sowohl stationäre, als auch zeitaufgelöste spektroskopische Methoden angewandt. Der erste Teil beschäftigt sich mit der photophysikalischen Charakterisierung von Pheo-HSA-Nanopartikeln. Mittels stationärer und zeitaufgelöster Messungen konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Wechselwirkungen zwischen Phäophorbid a und den HSA-Nanopartikeln sehr stark ist. Diese Wechselwirkungen bewirken eine geringe Singulettsauerstoffquantenausbeute (0,07) in D2O verglichen mit dem von Phäophorbid a in Ethanol (0,52). Im Gegensatz dazu konnte nach der Inkubation in Jurkat- und HT-29-Zellen eine intrazelluläre Singulettsauerstoffgenerierung der Pheo-HSA-NPs nachgewiesen werden. Im zweiten Teil wurden mit den Photosensibilisatoren mTHPP and mTHPC beladene HSA- und PLGA-Nanopartikel untersucht. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Photosensibilisator-Beladungsrate die photophysikalischen Eigenschaften der HSA- und PLGA-Nanopartikel stark beeinflusst. Für die HSA-Nanopartikel dominieren bei geringen Beladungsraten die Wechselwirkungen zwischen HSA und den Photosensibilisatormolekülen. Mit steigender Beladung spielen Wechselwirkungen zwischen den Photosensibilisatormolekülen eine zunehmende Rolle. Diese Wechselwirkungen verringern bei hoher Beladung der HSA-Nanopartikel die Generierung von Singulettsauerstoff. Auch für die PLGA-Nanopartikel konnte mit zunehmender Beladung ein verstärktes Singulettsauerstoffquenching nachgewiesen werden. Im dritten Teil dieser Arbeit wurden, für aktives Targeting von Tumorzellen, Oberflächenmodifizierte PLGA- und HSA-Nanopartikel untersucht. Die intrazellulären Singulettsauerstoffmessungen weisen auf eine erleichterte Aufnahme in Tumorzellen von Antikörper- und PEG-modifizierten HSA-Nanopartikeln in vitro hin. / The main goal of this PhD thesis is the photophysical investigation of biodegradable photosensitizer-nanoparticle carrier systems achieving passive and active tumour targeting strategies. For this purpose both steady state and time-resolved spectroscopic methods accompanied by data analysis were utilized. This work contains three main parts: First the photophysical properties of Pheo-HSA nanoparticles were compared to free pheophorbide a. Steady-state and time-resolved fluorescence experiments have already proved that the interaction between pheophorbide a and HSA nanoparticles is strong. This interaction leads to low singlet oxygen quantum yield (0.07) in D2O compared to free Pheo (0.52) in ethanol. But when incubated in Jurkat and HT-29 cell lines, Pheo-HSA nanoparticles have been proved to generate singlet oxygen inside cells. In the second part the well-known photosensitizers mTHPP and mTHPC were loaded to HSA- and PLGA- nanoparticles. It was found that the loading ratio determines the photophysical properties of both photosensitizer-loaded HSA and PLGA nanoparticles. For HSA nanoparticles, photosensitizer-nanoparticle interaction is the preferential mechanism in low loading ratio sample. But in high loading ratio sample, photosensitizer-photosensitizer interaction becomes the determining interaction. This interaction prevents singlet oxygen generation from high loading sample. For PLGA nanoparticles, high drug loading ratio also leads to a strong singlet oxygen quenching. At high drug loading ratio PLGA nanoparticles, some photosensitizer molecules may be localized deeply inside PLGA matrices and far away from surface. In the third part of this work, active tumour targeting behaviour achieved by surface modification of HSA and PLGA nanoparticles has been tested. Intracellular singlet oxygen measurement reveals that HSA nanoparticles, both with antibody and PEG surface modification have an enhanced targeting of tumour cells in vitro.

O complexo distrofina-glicoproteínas associadas (DGC) localiza-se no sarcolema das células musculares esqueléticas e cardíacas e tem como função principal proporcionar ligação mecânica entre o citoesqueleto intracelular e a matriz extracelular. Estudos prévios realizados em nosso laboratório, focalizando o complexo DGC, demonstraram perda de proteínas importantes desse complexo. As situações avaliadas anteriormente foram: infecção experimental por Trypanosoma cruzi (T. cruzi) e sépsis experimental. Em ambas as situações verificou-se a perda da distrofina acompanhada por disfunção contrátil e aumento nos níveis da calpaína, protease dependente de cálcio implicada na proteólise da distrofina. Todavia, o mecanismo responsável pela ativação das calpaínas e proteólise da distrofina na infecção experimental por T. cruzi e na sépsis experimental não está totalmente definido. O objetivo desse trabalho foi avaliar in vitro o mecanismo responsável pela ativação das calpaínas nas culturas de cardiomiócitos desafiadas com o soro dos animais infectados experimentalmente com T. cruzi ou com o soro dos animais submetidos à sépsis grave experimental. Camundongos C57BL/6 foram submetidos à sépsis grave ou infectados com a cepa Y de T. cruzi. No pico de expressão das citocinas pró-inflamatórias, 12 dias após inoculação do parasito ou 6 horas após a indução da sépsis, o sangue foi coletado e o soro separado. Corações de camundongos recém-nascidos foram isolados para o cultivo dos cardiomiócitos. No quinto dia após o início das culturas, as células foram estimuladas com 10% do soro de animais infectados com T. cruzi ou o soro de animais submetidos à sépsis grave durante 24 horas. Após, as células foram coletadas para análises de Western blotting e imunofluorescência para verificar a expressão da distrofina e calpaína-1. Avaliou-se também, por imunofluorescência, a expressão do NF-B. Os cardiomiócitos foram estimulados e tratados com o dantrolene, inibidor da liberação de cálcio do retículo sarcoplasmático, ou ALLN, inibidor da calpaína-1, e após coletados para verificar a expressão da distrofina e calpaína-1 por Western blotting e imunofluorescência. Nossos resultados mostraram uma redução significativa na expressão da distrofina com desarranjo das miofibrilas contráteis e formação de bolhas citoplasmáticas, além de um aumento nos níveis da calpaína-1 e do NF-B. O tratamento com dantrolene nas culturas estimuladas com o soro de animais infectados experimentalmente com T. cruzi ou com o soro dos animais submetidos à sépsis grave, recuperou a expressão da distrofina e reduziu os níveis da calpaína-1. O tratamento com ALLN nos cardiomiócitos estimulados com o soro de animais infectados experimentalmente com T. cruzi recuperou a expressão da distrofina e não alterou os níveis da calpaína-1. Nas culturas estimuladas com o soro dos animais submetidos à sépsis grave, o tratamento com o ALLN recuperou a expressão da distrofina e reduziu os níveis da calpaína-1. Nossos resultados demonstraram que citocinas pró-inflamatórias presentes no soro dos animais infectados experimentalmente com T. cruzi como também no soro dos animais submetidos à sépsis grave induziriam um aumento no influxo de cálcio com consequente ativação das calpaínas, as quais atuariam na ativação do NF-B e na degradação da distrofina. Esse mecanismo poderia ser responsável pela proteólise da distrofina cardíaca observada na infecção experimental por Trypanosoma cruzi como também sépsis experimental. Mais estudos são necessários para elucidar este mecanismo, principalmente em relação a inibidores dos canais de cálcio, das citocinas pró-inflamatórias e das calpaínas, com o objetivo de fornecer novas vias de intervenção na prevenção de alterações cardíacas observadas na doença de Chagas e na sépsis. / The dystrophin-glycoprotein complex (DGC), located in the sarcolemma of cardiac and skeletal muscle cells and concentrated along the plasma membrane in costameric structures provides a framework that connects the intracellular cytoskeleton to the extracellular matrix. Previous studies from our laboratory clearly demonstrated disruption of DGC proteins in experimentally-induced T. cruzi infection and experimental sepsis. Both situation presented dystrophin disruption associated with contractile dysfunction and increased calpain levels, calcium dependent protease responsible for dystrophin proteolysis. However, the mechanism responsible for calpain activation and dystrophin proteolysis in experimentally-induced T. cruzi infection and experimental sepsis is not totally understood. The aim of this study was to evaluate in vitro the mechanism responsible for calpain activation in cultured cardiomyocytes challenged with serum from animals experimentally infected with T. cruzi or subjected to severe sepsis. Mice C57BL/6 were subjected to sepsis induction or infected with Y strain from T. cruzi. At the peak of proinflammatory cytokines expression, 12 days after parasite inoculation or 6 hours after sepsis induction, the blood was collected and the serum separated. Hearts from newborn mice were isolated for culture of cardiomyocytes. After 5 days of incubation, the cardiac cells were stimulated with 10% of serum from animals experimentally infected with T. cruzi or subjected to severe sepsis during 24 hours, and collected for Western blotting and immunofluorescence analysis to verify dystrophin and calpain-1 expression. The expression of NF-B was evaluated by immunofluorescence. The treatments with dantrolene, inhibitor of calcium release from sarcoplasmic reticulum, or ALLN, calpain-1 inhibitor, were performed in cultured cardiomyocytes stimulated during 24 hours with serum from animals infected with T. cruzi or subjected to severe sepsis, and dystrophin and calpain-1 expression were analyzed by Western blotting and immunofluorescence. Our results demonstrated loss of dystrophin associated with myofibers derangement and presence of cytoplasmic blebs as well increase of calpain-1 and NF-B expression. The dantrolene treatment in cultures stimulated with serum from animals infected with T. cruzi or subjected to severe sepsis recovey dystrophin expression and reduced calpain-1 levels. The ALLN treatment in cardiomyocytes stimulated with serum from animals infected with T. cruzi recovery dystrophin expression and preserved calpain-1 levels. In cultures stimulated with serum from animals subjected to severe sepsis, the ALLN treatment recovery dystrophin expression and decreased calpain-1 levels. Our results demonstrated that proinflammatory cytokines in serum from mice infected with T. cruzi or subjected to severe sepsis could induce an increase calcium influx with calpain activation, which could act in NF-B activation and dystrophin disruption. Possibly, this mechanism could be responsible to dystrophin proteolysis observed in experimentally-induced acute T. cruzi infection and experimental sepsis. More studies are needed to elucidate this mechanism, especially in relation to calcium channel blockers and inhibitors of pro-inflammatory cytokines and calpains, which may provide new routes for intervention to prevent cardiac damage in Chagas disease and sepsis.

O complexo distrofina-glicoproteínas associadas (DGC) localiza-se no sarcolema das células musculares esqueléticas e cardíacas e tem como função principal proporcionar ligação mecânica entre o citoesqueleto intracelular e a matriz extracelular. Estudos prévios realizados em nosso laboratório, focalizando o complexo DGC, demonstraram perda de proteínas importantes desse complexo. As situações avaliadas anteriormente foram: infecção experimental por Trypanosoma cruzi (T. cruzi) e sépsis experimental. Em ambas as situações verificou-se a perda da distrofina acompanhada por disfunção contrátil e aumento nos níveis da calpaína, protease dependente de cálcio implicada na proteólise da distrofina. Todavia, o mecanismo responsável pela ativação das calpaínas e proteólise da distrofina na infecção experimental por T. cruzi e na sépsis experimental não está totalmente definido. O objetivo desse trabalho foi avaliar in vitro o mecanismo responsável pela ativação das calpaínas nas culturas de cardiomiócitos desafiadas com o soro dos animais infectados experimentalmente com T. cruzi ou com o soro dos animais submetidos à sépsis grave experimental. Camundongos C57BL/6 foram submetidos à sépsis grave ou infectados com a cepa Y de T. cruzi. No pico de expressão das citocinas pró-inflamatórias, 12 dias após inoculação do parasito ou 6 horas após a indução da sépsis, o sangue foi coletado e o soro separado. Corações de camundongos recém-nascidos foram isolados para o cultivo dos cardiomiócitos. No quinto dia após o início das culturas, as células foram estimuladas com 10% do soro de animais infectados com T. cruzi ou o soro de animais submetidos à sépsis grave durante 24 horas. Após, as células foram coletadas para análises de Western blotting e imunofluorescência para verificar a expressão da distrofina e calpaína-1. Avaliou-se também, por imunofluorescência, a expressão do NF-B. Os cardiomiócitos foram estimulados e tratados com o dantrolene, inibidor da liberação de cálcio do retículo sarcoplasmático, ou ALLN, inibidor da calpaína-1, e após coletados para verificar a expressão da distrofina e calpaína-1 por Western blotting e imunofluorescência. Nossos resultados mostraram uma redução significativa na expressão da distrofina com desarranjo das miofibrilas contráteis e formação de bolhas citoplasmáticas, além de um aumento nos níveis da calpaína-1 e do NF-B. O tratamento com dantrolene nas culturas estimuladas com o soro de animais infectados experimentalmente com T. cruzi ou com o soro dos animais submetidos à sépsis grave, recuperou a expressão da distrofina e reduziu os níveis da calpaína-1. O tratamento com ALLN nos cardiomiócitos estimulados com o soro de animais infectados experimentalmente com T. cruzi recuperou a expressão da distrofina e não alterou os níveis da calpaína-1. Nas culturas estimuladas com o soro dos animais submetidos à sépsis grave, o tratamento com o ALLN recuperou a expressão da distrofina e reduziu os níveis da calpaína-1. Nossos resultados demonstraram que citocinas pró-inflamatórias presentes no soro dos animais infectados experimentalmente com T. cruzi como também no soro dos animais submetidos à sépsis grave induziriam um aumento no influxo de cálcio com consequente ativação das calpaínas, as quais atuariam na ativação do NF-B e na degradação da distrofina. Esse mecanismo poderia ser responsável pela proteólise da distrofina cardíaca observada na infecção experimental por Trypanosoma cruzi como também sépsis experimental. Mais estudos são necessários para elucidar este mecanismo, principalmente em relação a inibidores dos canais de cálcio, das citocinas pró-inflamatórias e das calpaínas, com o objetivo de fornecer novas vias de intervenção na prevenção de alterações cardíacas observadas na doença de Chagas e na sépsis. / The dystrophin-glycoprotein complex (DGC), located in the sarcolemma of cardiac and skeletal muscle cells and concentrated along the plasma membrane in costameric structures provides a framework that connects the intracellular cytoskeleton to the extracellular matrix. Previous studies from our laboratory clearly demonstrated disruption of DGC proteins in experimentally-induced T. cruzi infection and experimental sepsis. Both situation presented dystrophin disruption associated with contractile dysfunction and increased calpain levels, calcium dependent protease responsible for dystrophin proteolysis. However, the mechanism responsible for calpain activation and dystrophin proteolysis in experimentally-induced T. cruzi infection and experimental sepsis is not totally understood. The aim of this study was to evaluate in vitro the mechanism responsible for calpain activation in cultured cardiomyocytes challenged with serum from animals experimentally infected with T. cruzi or subjected to severe sepsis. Mice C57BL/6 were subjected to sepsis induction or infected with Y strain from T. cruzi. At the peak of proinflammatory cytokines expression, 12 days after parasite inoculation or 6 hours after sepsis induction, the blood was collected and the serum separated. Hearts from newborn mice were isolated for culture of cardiomyocytes. After 5 days of incubation, the cardiac cells were stimulated with 10% of serum from animals experimentally infected with T. cruzi or subjected to severe sepsis during 24 hours, and collected for Western blotting and immunofluorescence analysis to verify dystrophin and calpain-1 expression. The expression of NF-B was evaluated by immunofluorescence. The treatments with dantrolene, inhibitor of calcium release from sarcoplasmic reticulum, or ALLN, calpain-1 inhibitor, were performed in cultured cardiomyocytes stimulated during 24 hours with serum from animals infected with T. cruzi or subjected to severe sepsis, and dystrophin and calpain-1 expression were analyzed by Western blotting and immunofluorescence. Our results demonstrated loss of dystrophin associated with myofibers derangement and presence of cytoplasmic blebs as well increase of calpain-1 and NF-B expression. The dantrolene treatment in cultures stimulated with serum from animals infected with T. cruzi or subjected to severe sepsis recovey dystrophin expression and reduced calpain-1 levels. The ALLN treatment in cardiomyocytes stimulated with serum from animals infected with T. cruzi recovery dystrophin expression and preserved calpain-1 levels. In cultures stimulated with serum from animals subjected to severe sepsis, the ALLN treatment recovery dystrophin expression and decreased calpain-1 levels. Our results demonstrated that proinflammatory cytokines in serum from mice infected with T. cruzi or subjected to severe sepsis could induce an increase calcium influx with calpain activation, which could act in NF-B activation and dystrophin disruption. Possibly, this mechanism could be responsible to dystrophin proteolysis observed in experimentally-induced acute T. cruzi infection and experimental sepsis. More studies are needed to elucidate this mechanism, especially in relation to calcium channel blockers and inhibitors of pro-inflammatory cytokines and calpains, which may provide new routes for intervention to prevent cardiac damage in Chagas disease and sepsis.

Kam, Kin Ting. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2008. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 169-192). / Abstracts in English and Chinese. / Chapter 1. --- Abstract --- p.ii / English --- p.ii / Chinese --- p.v / Chapter 2. --- Acknowledgments --- p.vii / Chapter 3. --- Abbreviations and N-glycan representation --- p.viii / Chapter 4. --- Introduction --- p.1 / Chapter 5. --- Review of Literatures --- p.2 / Chapter 5.1. --- Introduction to Liver Fibrosis --- p.2 / Chapter 5.1.1. --- Pathogenesis of Liver Fibrosis --- p.2 / Chapter 5.1.2. --- Changes of liver architecture - basis of liver fibrosis diagnosis --- p.4 / Chapter 5.2. --- Current Diagnosis of Liver Fibrosis - from Biopsy Examination to Serum Test --- p.5 / Chapter 5.3. --- Glycomics and its Potential as Biomarkers --- p.9 / Chapter 5.3.1. --- Overview of Biochemical and Functional Characteristics of Glycan --- p.13 / Chapter 5.3.2. --- N-linked and O-linked Glycosylations - A Valuable Source of Biomarkers --- p.15 / Chapter 5.3.3. --- Glycomics 一 An Uprising Approach for Biomarker Discovery --- p.17 / Chapter 5.3.4. --- Human Proteome Organisation Human Disease Glycomics/Proteome Initiative --- p.19 / Chapter 5.3.5. --- Recent Applications of Glycomics to Biomarker Discovery --- p.20 / Chapter 5.4. --- Current Technologies for Glycomic Study --- p.22 / Chapter 5.4.1. --- MALDI-TOF MS --- p.22 / Chapter 5.4.2. --- Lectin Microarray --- p.25 / Chapter 5.4.3. --- Liquid Chromatography --- p.27 / Chapter 5.4.4. --- Capillary Electrophoresis --- p.29 / Chapter 5.4.5. --- Quantitative Profiling of Tissue Glycome --- p.31 / Chapter 6 --- Project Rationales and Objectives --- p.36 / Chapter 7 --- Section 1: Methodology Development of Quantitative N- glycomic Profiling --- p.37 / Chapter 1. --- Introduction --- p.37 / Chapter 2. --- Method and Materials --- p.39 / Chapter 3. --- Results --- p.46 / Chapter 4. --- Discussion --- p.65 / Chapter 5. --- Conclusion --- p.71 / Chapter 8. --- Section 2: Serum N-glycomic Profile as Biomarker for Liver Fibrosis 一 Pilot Study --- p.73 / Chapter 1. --- Introduction --- p.73 / Chapter 2. --- Method and Materials --- p.75 / Chapter 3. --- Results --- p.79 / Chapter 4. --- Discussion --- p.86 / Chapter 5. --- Conclusion --- p.94 / Chapter 9. --- Section 3: Serum N-glycomic Profile as Biomarker for Liver Fibrosis -Verification Study --- p.96 / Chapter 1. --- Introduction --- p.96 / Chapter 2. --- Method and Materials --- p.98 / Chapter 3. --- Results --- p.104 / Chapter 4. --- Discussion --- p.137 / Chapter 5. --- Conclusion --- p.152 / Chapter 10. --- General Discussion --- p.153 / Chapter 11. --- Conclusion --- p.167 / Chapter 12. --- Original Data --- p.168 / Chapter 13. --- References --- p.169 / Chapter 14. --- Publications --- p.196

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Per- and polyfluorinated substances (PFAS) are compounds that consist of a carbon chainbackbone that is partially or entirely fluorinated, with an addition of a functional group. SomePFAS are known as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and have therefore been drawing a lot ofattention as well as increased concerns. PFAS have been detected in humans, wildlife and theenvironment and some have exhibited toxic effects such as hepatotoxicity, immunotoxicity,reproductive toxicity and endocrine disruption as well as being persistent and bioaccumulative.Serum, plasma and whole blood have been used as biomonitoring matrices in many studies toevaluate human exposure to PFAS. Restrictions have been applied to some PFAS, but thesecompounds are still ubiquitous. This study will investigate the performance (recovery, matrixeffect (ME) in terms of intra-/inter-day repeatability) of ion-pair extraction (IPE) and solid phaseextraction with weak anion exchange (SPE-WAX). The extraction methods were adapted fromliterature and 13 PFAS were selected for this work based on prior biomonitoring studies. Thetarget PFAS content was analyzed with liquid chromatography coupled with tandem massspectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The extraction methods were also compared for extractableorganofluorine (EOF) extraction in terms of blank levels as well as the amount extracted withdifferent methods; the EOF content was measured with combustion ion chromatography (CIC).The EOF levels were used to estimate the amount of unidentified organofluorine (UOF), to avoidunderestimating potential health hazards. Samples extracted using IPE had an average ionizationenhancement of 9%, while SPE-WAX showed an average ionization suppression of -1%. SPEWAXshowed higher average recoveries for procedural blanks (78%), horse serum (96%) andhuman serum (95%) in comparison to IPE (69%, 36%, 88%, respectively). The CIC analysis forEOF content was observed to be below MDL (<50 ng/mL F) with some contaminations observedin the procedural blanks.

Proteins are the center of all biochemical reactions in living organisms. Proteins need to be present at the right time, in the right place, with the correct concentration and have the right shape to carry their designated function. Protein homeostasis is when all proteins in the proteome are in functional balance, and such balance is maintained by synthesis, folding, and degradation machinery. When protein homeostasis is lost, organisms start to age and develop diseases. To truly unveil disease mechanisms and provide more efficient means for treatment and prevention, we need a holistic understanding of the mechanism of protein homeostasis. Currently, most biomarker studies focus on the quantity aspect of the proteome. The quality aspect has been neglected because of the difficulties in measuring quality in vivo with cellular context retained. This work first proposes a kinetic model of protein homeostasis, which can provide a holistic view, including both quantity and quality aspects, as well as monitor the complex protein interactions. Using mass spectrometry, the model quantifies the quality of proteome by linking the concentration of protein, mRNA, and the rate protein synthesis, folding, unfolding, misfolding, refolding, degradation of the correctly folded protein, and degradation of protein aggregation. We then applied the ideas within the kinetic model of protein homeostasis to study several proteins in human blood serum. We reviewed the current known mechanism of transthyretin mediated amyloidosis and proposed a study approach that can measure the quality difference between different transthyretin's mutation stages, as well as monitor if the transthyretin amyloidosis has been developed at the early stage. We also used mass-spectrometry to quantify the surface accessibility differences in human serum albumin (HSA) between patients with and without rheumatoid arthritis (RA). We found certain residues are less reactive in the RA group, indicating a structural change in HSA. Such structural changes, possibly caused by ligand binding, stabilized HSA and explained the heat denature curve shift we observed. In the end, we introduced a novel assay, Iodination Protein Stability Assay (IPSA). IPSA is used to quantify protein quality by measuring protein folding stability. We applied IPSA to human serum, and it is the first in situ study, to our best knowledge, that measure the protein folding stability of proteins from human serum. We confirmed that IPSA is sensitive to measuring the differences in protein folding stability between transferrin's different iron-binding states. Together, this dissertation conveys the importance of adding quality aspects to current quantity-focused research in curing diseases and improving the quality of human life.