This essay deals with the translation methods used for a German-Swedish translation of metaphors in two books about climate change and environmental policy. These books contain a large number of metaphors, and this essay raises the question of how those are translated. The theory used for defining and classifying the metaphors found in the material is the conceptual metaphor theory, as defined by Lakoff and Johnson (1980), and their notion of metaphor is also fundamental in how it is later being analysed. The study finds that of the four different  translation strategies used, direct translation is by far the most common one. It also shows that a few metaphors were altered in terms of the lexicalisation of the metaphorical expression, however with the underlying conceptual metaphor still intact. Only one metaphor was translated with a completely different conceptual metaphor than in the original, and in two other cases the metaphor was translated with non-figurative language.

Paul Ricoeur believes that metaphors not only provide information, but also convey truths. When people express non-image concepts with image-based language, they use metaphor. Reading Biblical metaphor is to look for God through reading. Metaphors are used throughout the Bible as a means of pointing to truths and as a tool to allow readers to recognize God. How has the Bible enabled millions of believers for centuries to serve God despite the limitations of human language? The answer is that God reveals Himself through metaphor, allowing people to know His value. The use of metaphor is not only a literary device designed for aesthetic purposes; the main purpose of metaphor is to express concepts that are difficult to describe directly. This article uses conceptual metaphor theory (CMT) from Metaphors We Live By (Lakeoff & Johnson, 1980, 2003) and blending theory (BT) by Fauconnier and Turner (1995) as analysis strategies for Biblical texts, they are also one kind of tool of organizing information at the same time. Metaphor is a type of inspirational linguistic phenomenon; a linguistic device that enables people¡¦s minds to ascend to a higher place. Biblical metaphors are extremely rich, and this article offers only an initial analytical interpretation of the four main themes of Biblical metaphors: The exploration of God¡¦s nature and attributes; to see the default table of the Old Testament and the intertextuality of the New Testament; the characteristics of believers; and the interactive relationship between God and man, including God¡¦s will for humanity. Using these four basic and essential themes, this study explores how the Bible uses metaphor to convey abstract concepts and relate communications between God and man, as well as exploring how moral lessons are conveyed through metaphors, enabling the average person to understand them. In addition, in a position of Biblical readers to explore how readers use their own experience and cognitive abilities regarding metaphors to ascertain the true meaning of faith, including metaphorical thinking of the solutions, the experience of faith is the extension of the metaphor. ¡¨Christ¡¨ is the necessary key for Biblical interpretation, as well as the metaphor is possible as an edge tool of cognition & expression, that is, Biblical readers can transfer the implication of belief through the modes of metaphor understanding per the information provided by Bible. Using the same principle, the reading technique of metaphorical cognition can be applied to other texts as a method of interpreting meaning¡Xespecially abstract meaning.

本文旨在研究中文日常會話中語言及手勢之隱喻表達，並根據Lakoff和Johnson的概念隱喻理論（Conceptual Metaphor Theory），探討語言與手勢之慣常隱喻表達以及兩者的互動關係。本文共分析247筆隱喻。其中110（44.5%）筆在語言及手勢中同時傳遞同一類型之隱喻概念；另外137（55.5%）筆只藉著手勢傳達隱喻概念。 日常會話語料中共發現九種隱喻類型，包括身體譬喻、因果譬喻、傳輸譬喻、容器譬喻、實體譬喻、虛擬移動譬喻、 空間方位譬喻、擬人譬喻以及複合譬喻。此外，根據意象圖式之概念，本研究也區分了九種來源域概念：活動、身體部位、容器、虛擬移動、力、物體、路徑、人與空間。隱喻可以用來表達繁多的目標域概念，以下八種目標域概念在語料中至少出現五次：群體、心理活動、具體活動、程度、順序、說話內容、狀態與時間。 研究發現，實體譬喻（77.8%）及空間方位譬喻（17.4%）在日常會話中最為普遍。根據Lakoff 和 Johnson （1980c），人們對於實體之經驗提供了多種方式來表達其他抽象概念，例如我們能集合、分類、量化物體以及確立物體之情勢。Lakoff 和 Johnson亦表示，空間方位是構成某些概念（例如：高地位）之不可或缺的部分；缺乏空間方位譬喻，很難利用其他方式表達。因此，日常會話中經常使用實體譬喻及空間方位作譬喻。空間方位譬喻之來源域概念可以是空間或路徑，而其他類型之譬喻僅來自單一來源域。最常見的來源域概念為物體，而常見之目標域概念則有狀態、時間及具體活動。有關單一來源域至多元目標域之隱喻對應，來源域概念包括物體、空間、路徑、虛擬移動、活動及容器，可用以表達多個目標域。有關多元來源域至單一目標域之隱喻對應，目標域概念包括時間、心理活動、說話內容、順序及程度，可藉由多個來源域表達。 本文亦從三方面探討語言及手勢如何共同表達隱喻概念：語言及手勢之時序、手勢之關聯詞彙、語言及手勢之語意配合，以瞭解關於語言與手勢產生之不同理論假說。Lexical Semantic Hypothesis認為手勢源自於詞項之語意內容，也主張手勢出現之時間通常先於相關詞彙，以利詞彙搜索。Interface Hypothesis則認為空間-運動訊息及語言訊息在產生手勢之過程中相互影響，因此手勢及語言會同時出現，而本研究確實發現手勢大多與相關詞彙同時出現。再者，17.4%的手勢對應片語，而不限於單詞，此結果與Lexical Semantic Hypothesis之見解相悖。最後，研究發現55.5%之隱喻僅藉由手勢表達。因此語言及手勢傳達不同的語意訊息，結果支持Interface Hypothesis之論說—手勢和語言可各自表意。上述三項結果支持Interface Hypothesis之論點。 / This thesis explores the linguistic and gestural expressions of metaphors in daily Chinese conversations. Following Lakoff and Johnson’s framework of Conceptual Metaphor Theory, the present study aims to investigate the habitual expressions of metaphors in language and gesture and the collaboration of the two modalities in conveying metaphors. The present study examined 247 metaphoric expressions. The data includes 110 (44.5%) metaphors being conveyed concurrently by speech and gesture—the two modalities expressing the same type of metaphors—and 137 (55.5%) metaphors being conveyed in gesture exclusively. Nine types of metaphors were found in the daily conversations: Body-part, Causation, Conduit, Container, Entity, Fictive-motion, Orientation, Personification, and complex metaphors. Furthermore, based on the notion of image schema, nine types of source-domain concepts were recognized: ACTIVITY, BODY-PART, CONTAINER, FICTIVE-MOTION, FORCE, OBJECT, PATH, PERSON, and SPACE. A great variety of target-domain concepts were realized via metaphors; the present study focused on eight types, each occurred more than five times in the data: GROUP, MENTAL ACTIVITY, (physical) ACTIVITY, DEGREE, SEQUENCE, SPEECH CONTENT, STATE, and TIME. The results showed that Entity metaphor (77.8%) and Orientation metaphor (17.4%) are the most common types in daily conversation. According to Lakoff and Johnson (1980c), people’s bodily experiences of physical objects provide basis for viewing other abstract concepts; for instance, we can group, categorize, quantify, and identify aspects of objects. They also suggested spatial orientations are essential parts of certain concepts (e.g., high status); without orientation metaphors, it would be difficult to find alternative ways to express the ideas. Therefore, Entity metaphor and Orientation metaphor are frequently employed in metaphoric expressions. Orientation metaphors are based on two source domains, SPACE and PATH; the other types of metaphors are all associated with a single source domain. The most common type of source domains is OBJECT, whereas the common types of target domains are STATE, TIME, and PHYSICAL ACTIVITY. With regard to the one-source-to-many-targets correspondences, the source domains of OBJECT, SPACE, PATH, FICTIVE-MOTION, ACTIVITY, and CONTAINER could be used to express numerous target-domain concepts metaphorically. As to the many-sources-to-one-target correspondences, the target-domain concepts of TIME, MENTAL ACTIVITY, SPEECH CONTENT, SEQUENCE, and DEGREE could be represented by multiple source-domain concepts. The collaboration of language and gesture enables us to evaluate the various hypotheses of speech-gesture production, based on the temporal relation between language and gesture, the lexical affiliates of metaphoric gestures, and the semantic coordination across the two modalities. The Lexical Semantics Hypothesis suggests that gestures are generated from the semantic of a lexical item (or a word) and that gestures tend to precede their lexical affiliates to help lexical search. The Interface Hypothesis proposes that spatio-motoric and linguistic information interact with each other during gesture production, so gestures and the related speech will occur at the same time. The present study found that gestures mostly synchronize with the associated speech. Moreover, 17.4% of metaphoric gestures are associated with grammatical phrases rather than words. This result opposes to the claim of the Lexical Semantics Hypothesis. Last, the present study found that 55.5% of metaphoric expressions are being conveyed in gesture exclusively. The result supports the argument of the Interface Hypothesis that language and gesture can covey diverse semantic contents respectively. Based on the above findings, the current study tends to support the Interface Hypothesis.

This study revolves around the different underlying metaphorical or metonymical structures of three specific idioms, one English, one Swedish and one German, but with equivalent semantics. The structure of the source and target domains was analysed, as well as the mapping from source to target. The lexical features and the cognitive concepts involved were analysed as well. The method used for this study was an analysis based on cognitive linguistics and conceptual metaphor theory. The result shows a structure of conceptual metaphor within the English and German idioms: making a small entity into a big entity is exaggeration. The Swedish idiom consists of a conceptual metaphor but with a metonymic structure: the part for the whole is exaggeration. The result also suggests a difference in meaning of the definitions of the idioms, indicating that the form of exaggeration varies depending on which idiom is used.

This essay deals with the translation of certain metaphors in a journalistic political essay. It focuses on metaphor as a conceptual and rhetorical device, and on the translation of metaphors that make use of the source domains NATURAL FORCE and ILLNESS. The aim of the essay is to investigate to what extent the two source domains are transferred to the target text in translation, and to show how the fact that metaphors are both conceptual and rhetorical is reason for why they should be transferred when possible. The study is quantitative in that it looks at frequency of source domain transfer into the target text and at the frequency of a few metaphor translation methods, and it is qualitative in that it explains how the metaphors are both conceptual and rhetorical choices on behalf of the author, and in that it explains and analyses the processes leading to certain metaphor translation strategies. The study finds that four different methods are used when translating the metaphors in questions and that it is by far most common to directly translate them. The second most common strategy allows for the source domain to be transferred to the target text but for the actual lexemes or phrases belonging to it to be exchanged for other lexemes or phrases within the same source domain.

La présente étude intitulée «Terminologie juridique moderne de la langue anglaise: aspects linguistiques et cognitifs » aborde le langage juridique contemporain dans le cadre de la linguistique cognitive. Les objectifs de l'étude sont d'étudier les particularités de la terminologie juridique et de proposer des principes de systématisation, en se référant à la théorie cognitive de la métaphore. Il s’agit principalement : 1) de déterminer les concepts de base utilisés métaphoriquement dans la langue juridique ; 2) d'établir les correspondances principales entre domaines et les corrélations entre des éléments particuliers dans des domaines spécifiques. Pour répondre à cette question, un corpus d’anglais juridique a été constitué et soumis à une étude quantitative. Les expressions métaphoriques liées à la terminologie juridique ont été retirés et classés selon leur sens métaphorique. Il est ainsi apparu que les métaphores conceptuelles de la GUERRE, de la MEDECINE, du SPORT et de la CONSTRUCTION étaient les plus nombreuses et prégnantes en anglais juridique. Les projections et correspondances entre ces domaines sources et le domaine cible de la LOI ont été établies.Cette étude empirique repose sur 156 textes juridiques qui ont été rassemblés au sein d’un même corpus (COLE – Corpus of Legal English). Les sources renvoient à différentes catégories thématiques. Le corpus a été utilisé pour établir la réalité de certains phénomènes et interpréter les résultats quantitatifs dans le cadre de la théorie de la métaphore conceptuelle. / The present doctoral dissertation entitled “Modern English Legal Terminology: linguistic and cognitive aspects” investigates the contemporary legal idiom, from a cognitive linguistics perspective. The aim of this study is to map out the peculiarities of English legal terminology and develop principles of systematization, within the framework of conceptual metaphor theory. This means 1) determining the basic concepts used metaphorically in English legal language, and 2) establishing the main cross-domain mappings and correlations between separate items within concrete domains.The Corpus of Legal English (COLE) was set up and a quantitative analysis performed, in which metaphorical expressions related to legal terminology were searched for and classified on the basis of meanings, conceptual domains and mappings. Thus, the conceptual metaphors of WAR, MEDICINE, SPORT and CONSTRUCTION were found to be the most numerous and valuable in Legal English. The main cross-domain mappings between these source domains and the target domain of LAW were established.In order to carry out this data-driven study, 156 legal texts were selected and compiled into the Corpus of Legal English (COLE). The source-texts represent various thematic categories. The COLE was systematically used to interpret frequency counts from the point of view of conceptual metaphor theory. / Дисертаційне дослідження на тему «Сучасна англійська юридична термінологія: лінгвокогнитивний аспект» досліджує сучасну мову права з точки зору когнітивної лінгвістики. Головною метою дослідження було дослідження особливостей англійської юридичної термінології та принципів її систематизації з точки зору когнітивної теорії і власне теорії концептуальної метафори. В ході написання роботи були поставлені наступні цілі: 1) визначити головні концепти які використовуються у якості метафор в англійській мові права; 2) встановити головні концептуальні зв’язки між окремими елементами доменів.З метою вирішення цих питань і задач був проведений кількісний аналіз корпусу юридичної англійської мови. В ході цього аналізу біли виділені та класифіковані метафоричні вирази які пов’язані з юридичною термінологією згідно їх метафоричного значення. В результаті аналізу було виявлено що концептуальні метафори WAR, MEDICINE, SPORT та CONSTRUCTION займають домінуюче положення в мові права. Також були встановлені основні концептуальні зв’язки між сферою-джерелом та сферою-ціллю.В даному дослідженні було використано спеціально створений корпус, який включає в себе 156 правових текстів різноманітної сюжетної направленості, для проведення кількісного аналізу з точки зору концептуальної метафори.

In this thesis I have combined cognitive metaphor theory, based mostly on the theories of the book Metaphors we live by by Lakoff & Johnson, with translation theory in order to try and show how the former can contribute with useful analytical tools within me- taphor translation. More specifically, my objective is to try and show how the knowled- ge of how metaphor works according to the cognitive perspective can help translating metaphors in a way that corresponds to the recommendations established by Peter Newmark (1992), i.e. try to maintain, in as much as posible, both grammatical structure and semantics. Through a qualitative analysis I considered gramatical structure and se- mantics of three original literary metaphors taken from the swedish book ”Gösta Ber- lings saga” by Selma Lagerlöf, and their translations to spanish made by Slaby (1955). I identified how well the translations corresponded to the recommendations of Newmark, as well as suggested new translations based on the results of the cognitive analysis. As a result we could see the importance, not only of maintaining both source domain and tar- get domain of the original metaphor, or at least the epistemical correspondences in case the source domain changed, but also the ontological correspondences, the specific con- tact, that the original metaphor establishes between these two domains, for a translation that better follows the norms defined by Newmark. In other words, limited to these th- ree examples, I managed to confirm that a cognitive approach to metaphor can be very useful within translation.

The purpose of this thesis is to explore the use of conceptual metaphors in political speeches by Donald Trump and Nigel Farage. Conceptual metaphor theory is applied as the framework for the study. Metaphorical linguistic expressions are identified with help of the method Metaphor Identification Procedure (MIP). The conceptual metaphors giving rise to the metaphorical linguistic expressions are identified and categorized into different domains in the study. The analysis demonstrates that the use of metaphors is ubiquitous. The metaphors related to the salient domains of politics, nation, immigration, economy, and morality are discussed and further investigated in the analysis. The analysis shows that metaphors are employed in the construction of populist discourse and to evoke the emotion of fear by mainly drawing from embodied elements. A notable parallel between Trump and Farage is the use of the Moral Order metaphor which subsequently reveal their moral values.

The study is a comparative analysis of conceptual metaphors in English and Shona. The objectives of this study were: to compare the metaphorical expressions of English and Shona in the same or similar domains in order to establish on the one hand whether there are similarities and/or differences cross-linguistically and cross-culturally in the metaphorical construal of reality between these two languages and on the other hand, to establish what the underlying motivation is for the similarities and the differences between these two unrelated languages. The thesis also explores the reasons for the similarities in terms of particular assumptions underlying conceptual metaphors, that is, embodiment and ecological motivations. / Linguistics / D. Litt. et Phil. (Linguistics)

The study is a comparative analysis of conceptual metaphors in English and Shona. The objectives of this study were: to compare the metaphorical expressions of English and Shona in the same or similar domains in order to establish on the one hand whether there are similarities and/or differences cross-linguistically and cross-culturally in the metaphorical construal of reality between these two languages and on the other hand, to establish what the underlying motivation is for the similarities and the differences between these two unrelated languages. The thesis also explores the reasons for the similarities in terms of particular assumptions underlying conceptual metaphors, that is, embodiment and ecological motivations. / Linguistics and Modern Languages / D. Litt. et Phil. (Linguistics)