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Die vorliegende Arbeit beschreibt die Messung der polarisierten Strukturfunktion g1p des Protons in der polarisationsabh"angigen tief inelastischen Positron-Proton-Streuung bei einer Schwerpunktenergie von 7.5 GeV. Die Analyse umfasst die 1997 mit dem Hermes-Experiment am Hera-Positronring aufgezeichneten Daten der Streuung polarisierter Positronen der Energie 27.6 GeV an einem polarisierten Wasserstofftarget. Aus den Z"ahlraten der inklusiv nachgewiesenen, selektierten Positronen f"ur die parallele und die antiparallele Ausrichtung der Spinvektoren von Strahlteilchen und Targetatomen wurde die Streuquerschnitts- Asymmetrie der Positron-Proton-Streuung bestimmt. In verschiedenen Korrekturverfahren wurden Untergrundprozesse, Spektrometereinfl"usse sowie Strahlungskorrekturen ber"ucksichtigt. Die Untergrundkorrekturen wurden aus den Daten, die Spektrometerkorrekturen aus einer Monte-Carlo- Simulation ermittelt. Die Abh"angigkeit der Monte-Carlo- und Strahlungskorrekturen von der gew"ahlten Modell-Asymmetrie zur Beschreibung der polarisationsabh"angigen Effekte wurde durch die Anwendung eines iterativen Verfahrens minimiert. Aus der vollst"andig korrigierten Streuquerschnitts-Asymmetrie wurde die Asymmetrie g1/F1 im kinematischen Bereich 0.021 < x < 0.85 und Q2 > 0.8 GeV^2 mit einer systematischen Unsicherheit von etwa 8% bei einer statistischen Genauigkeit von 6% bis 20%, ansteigend f"ur abnehmende x-Werte, bestimmt. Die aus g1/F1 berechnete polarisierte Strukturfunktion g1p(x,Q2) wird, unter der Annahme einer von q2 unabh"angigen Asymmetry g1/F1, zu einem festen Wert Q2_0 entwickelt. Ihr erstes Moment im gemessenen x-Bereich betr"agt int_{0.021}^{0.85} dx g1p(x,Q2_0) = 0.122 =- 0.003 (stat) =- 0.010 (sys) at Q2_0 = 2.5 GeV^2. Der Vergleich mit den Werten des SMC-Experimentes am CERN und des E143-Experimentes am SLAC f"ur das erste Moment von g1p wurde unter Anwendung des gleichen Integrationsschemas f"ur den jeweils gemeinsam gemessenen x-Bereich sowie f"ur gleiche Q2_0 Werte durchgef"uhrt. Das Ergebnis der vorliegenden Analyse befindet sich, bezogen auf die statistische Genauigkeit der Messungen, in "Ubereinstimmung innerhalb von 0.6 bzw. 1.2 Standardabweichungen mit den Resultaten des E143- bzw. SMC-Experimentes. Durch Extrapolation der Strukturfunktion auf den gesamten x-Bereich [0,1] wird das erste Moment zu \int_{0}^{1} dx g1p(x,Q2_0) = 0.132 +- 0.003 (stat) +- 0.010 (sys) +- 0.006 (extr) bestimmt, wobei der zus"atzliche Fehler die Unsicherheit in der Extrapolation x -> 0 wiedergibt. Die Interpretation der vorliegenden Messung im Rahmen des Quark-Parton-Modells unter Ber"ucksichtigung von QCD-Korrekturen der Ordnung O(alphaS^3) ergibt einen Beitrag der Quarks zum Gesamtspin des Nukleons von (30 +- 10)% f"ur Q2_0 = 2.5 GeV^2. Dieses Ergebnis entspricht einer Abweichung von der Ellis-Jaffe-Vorhersage um 2.5 Standardabweichungen, bezogen auf den angegebenen Gesamtfehler, und f"uhrt im Kontext des Quark-Parton-Modells zur Interpretation negativ polarisierter Strange-Seequarks mit einem Beitrag von (-9 +- 4)% f"ur Q2_0 = 2.5 GeV^2. Von verschiedenen Gruppen werden aus QCD-Analysen unterschiedlicher Datens"atze Beitr"age der Quarks zum Nukleonspin von 19% bis 44% angegeben. Unter Hinzunahme der Hermes-Messung der polarisierten Neutronstrukturfunktion g1n wurde der Wert der fundamentalen Bjorken-Summenregel f"ur Q2_0 = 2.5 GeV^2 bestimmt. Dieser Wert befindet sich, bei einer auf den Gesamtfehler bezogenen Genauigkeit von 13%, innerhalb von 0.5 Standardabweichungen in "Ubereinstimmung mit der theoretischen Vorhersage, berechnet unter Ber"ucksichtigung von QCD-Korrekturen der Ordnung O(\alphaS^3). / The subject of this thesis is the measurement of the polarised structure function g1p of the proton in deeply inelastic positron-proton-scattering at a centre of mass energy of 7.5 GeV. The data used in the analysis were recorded during the 1997 running period of the Hermes experiment using a longitudinally nuclear polarised hydrogen target in the 27.6 GeV Hera polarised positron storage ring. The cross section asymmetry of positron-proton-scattering has been measured by counting the number of inclusively reconstructed and selected positrons with target spin vector parallel or antiparallel to the beam spin direction. Background processes, spectrometer effects, and radiative corrections have been taken into account by applying different correction procedures. Here background corrections were determined from data while spectrometer corrections were computed from Monte Carlo simulation. The dependence of Monte Carlo and radiative corrections on the model asymmetry chosen to describe polarisation dependent effects has been minimised by applying an iterative procedure. From the fully corrected cross section asymmetry the asymmetry g1/F1 has been computed in the kinematic region 0.021 < x < 0.85 and Q2 > 0.8 GeV^2 with a systematic uncertainty of 8% and a statistical accuracy of 6% to 20%, raising for decreasing x values. The polarised structure function g1p(x,Q2), determined from the asymmetry g1/F1 , was evoluted to a common Q2_0 value assuming g1/F1 to be independent of Q2. Its first moment evaluated in the measured x region is int_{0.021}^{0.85} dx g1p(x,Q2_0) = 0.122 =- 0.003 (stat) =- 0.010 (sys) at Q2_0 = 2.5 GeV^2. This result has been compared with those from E143 at SLAC and from SMC at CERN, both calculated with the same integration scheme and for the kinematic range of Hermes. With respect to the statistical uncertainties the agreement is better than 0.6 and 1.2 standard deviations, respectively. Extrapolation over the entire x range [0,1] yield for the first moment\int_{0}^{1} dx g1p(x,Q2_0) = 0.132 +- 0.003 (stat) +- 0.010 (sys) +- 0.006 (extr) where the additional error gives the uncertainty in the extrapolation x -> 0. The interpretation of this measurement in the framework of the quark parton model taking QCD corrections of the order O(alphaS^3) into account results in a contribution of the quarks to the total nucleon spin of (30 +- 10)% at Q2_0 = 2.5 GeV^2. This result corresponds to a deviation from the Ellis-Jaffe prediction by 2.5 standard deviation regarding the given total uncertainty. Within the quark parton model the deviation can be interpreted as negative polarisation of the strange sea quarks with a contribution of (-9 +- 4)% at Q2_0 = 2.5 GeV^2. Different groups give contributions of the quarks to the nucleon spin of 19% to 44% which were obtained from QCD analyses of various data sets. The fundamental Bjorken sum rule has been determined at Q2_0 = 2.5 GeV^2 using the Hermes measurement of the polarised neutron structure function g1n. With respect to the experimental accuracy of 13 %, the result agrees within 0.5 standard deviation with the theoretical prediction taking QCD corrections of the order O(alphaS^3) into account.

A esquistossomose é a mais importante das doenças helmínticas humanas em termos de morbidez e mortalidade. A proteína Sm14 de Schistosoma mansoni, que pertence à família de proteínas ligadoras de ácidos graxos (fatty acid-binding proteins, FABPs) (Moser et al., 1991), mostrou um bom nível de proteção (65%) contra a esquistossomose em animais experimentais (Tendler et al., 1996). No presente trabalho foram desenvolvidos sistemas de expressão que possibilitará a produção da proteína Sm14 em larga escala em E.coli. Com o intuito de conhecer a estrutura do gene da proteína Sm14, foi clonado um fragmento de DNA genômico de S. mansoni que contém a seqüência codificante da proteína Sm14. Como os outros membros da família gênica das FABP, o gene para a proteína Sm14 contém quatro \"exons\" separados por três \"introns\" de 674, 585 e 42 bp. Esta é a primeira descrição da estrutura gênica de um membro das FABP correspondente a um helminto. A Sm14 é uma proteína que pode ser potencialmente usada como vacina. Estudamos a existência de polimorfismo em duas linhagens de S. mansoni endêmicas do Brasil: LE e BH. Para a análise de polimorfismo, a ORF correspondente à proteína Sm14 foi amplificada por RT-PCR do RNA total de vermes adultos de S. mansoni. Os produtos de amplificação independentes foram clonados no vetor pGEM-T e seqüenciados. As análises de seqüências mostraram duas isoformas principais para a proteína Sm14: Sm14-M20, com seqüência idêntica a proteína Sm14 previamente reportada para a linhagem de Puerto Rico de S. mansoni (Moser et AL., 1991), e Sm14-T20, onde o códon da Met20 (ATG) mudou para o códon de Thr (ACG) (polimorfismo M20T). Dois clones mostraram uma deleção de seqüência de aminoácidos correspondente ao \"exon\" 3 inteiro (clones &#916;Exon3), gerada por \"splicing\" alternativo. As outras trocas observadas acontecem em posições onde os aminoácidos são menos conservados e estão representados apenas por um único clone que podem ter sido obtidas por mutagênese na PCR. A metionina correspondente à posição 20 na Sm14 é altamente conservada nas FABP dos mais diversos organismos,e não se tem nenhuma outra proteína com treonina nesta posição. Para o estudo da estrutura e função destas isoformas, os cDNAs correspondentes foram subclonados no vetor pAE (desenvolvido no nosso laboratório), assim como o mutante M20A (Sm14-A20) construído para efeitos de comparação. A estabilidade e estrutura das proteínas recombinantes purificadas foram caracterizadas por dicroísmo circular (CD). A comparação da estrutura e termoestabilidade mostrou que as formas Sm14-T20 e Sm14-A20 são menos termoestáveis do que a Sm14-M20 (um &#916;Tm de aproximadamente 10°C). Porém, todas as formas de Sm14 foram capazes de ligar o DAUDA [ácido 11-(dansylamino) undecanoico] com a mesma afinidade. Para poder diferenciar as propriedades de ligação de ácidos graxos pelas isoformas, experiências de competição do deslocamento do DAUDA por ácidos graxos naturais, foram realizadas. A partir destes dados podemos assumir que a forma Sm14-M20 liga melhor todos os ácidos graxos naturais testados do que a forma Sm14-T20. Porém esta forma mantém a capacidade de ligar ácidos graxos, ao contrario do mutante Sm14-A20. Pode-se deduzir como resultado destas experiências que a proteína Sm14-M20 é mais estável e liga com maior afinidade os ácidos graxos naturais do que a forma Sm14-T20. Pelo visto, a proteína Sm14-T20 tem menos estrutura-&#946;, porém, mantém a capacidade de ligar moléculas hidrofóbicas. Ainda é desconhecido o papel funcional do polimorfismo da proteína Sm14 no metabolismo dos vermes de S. mansoni. Problemas de estabilidade da proteína Sm14 recombinante, durante seu transporte e armazenamento, comprometem sua viabilidade como vacina. Com o intuito de melhorar a estabilidade desta proteína, foi feita uma mutagênese no único resíduo de cisteína presente na Sm14 na posição 62. Este resíduo é responsável pela formação de dímeros, o que é relacionado a estabilização da perda de estrutura-&#946; e precipitação da proteína. Esta cisteína foi trocada por serina (C62S) e por valina (C62V) por mutagênese sítio dirigida, resultando nas proteínas Sm14-M20S62 e Sm14-M20V62. As formas mutantes não apresentaram maior termoestabilidade, mas a renaturação após o aquecimento a 80°C atingiu quase 100%, diferentemente das proteínas com Cys62. As proteínas com o resíduo de cisteina trocado foram as únicas formas que conservaram a estrutura de &#946;-barril após 3 meses de armazenamento a 4°C, como mostram as análises de dicroísmo circular, sendo a forma mais estável a proteína Sm14-M20V62. Após estes estudos, a isoforma Sm14-M20 com a mutação C62V (Sm14-M20V62) mostrou-se como a melhor alternativa ao antígeno Sm14-T20 usado até agora como modelo de vacina experimental para S. mansoni. Esta indicação deve ser confirmada em ensaios de imunização e posterior desafio com cercárias de S. mansoni. / The schistosomiasis is the most important human helmintic disease in terms of morbidity and mortality. The Sm14 protein of Schistosoma mansoni belongs to the family of fatty acid-binding proteins (FABPs) (Moser et aI. , 1991) and showed a good protection level as vaccine antigen against the schistosomiasis in experimental animals (Tendler et al., 1996). In the present work were developed systems for the expression of Sm14 protein that will facilitate its large scale production in E.coli.. In order to know the gene structure of the Sm14 protein, we amplified by PCR a genomic DNA fragment of S. mansoni that contains the coding sequence for the Sm14 protein. As the other members of the FABP family, the Sm14 gene contains four exons separated by three introns of 674,585 and 42 bp, respectively. This is the first detailed description of the genomic structure for a member of FABPs corresponding to a helmint. We also studied the existence of polymorphisms within two Brazilian endemic strains of S.mansoni: LE and BH. For the polymorphism analysis, the ORF corresponding to the Sm14 protein was amplified by RT-PCR from total RNA of S. mansoni adult worms. The independent amplified products were cloned into pGEM-T vector and sequenced. The sequence analyses showed two main isoforms: Sm14-M20, with identical sequence to that previously reported Sm14 protein from the Puerto Rican strain of S. mansoni (Moser et al., 1991), and Sm14-T20, where the codon for Met20 (ATG) was changed for the Thr codon (ACG) (M20T polymorphism). Two clones showed the same amino acid sequence deletion corresponding to the whole third exon (&#916;Exon3 clones), generated by alternative splicing. The other observed changes occurred in positions where the amino acids were less conserved and were just represented by only one clone that could be obtained by PCR mutagenesis. The methionine corresponding to the position 20 in Sm14 is highly conserved among FABPs and no other related protein has threonin in this position. To study the structure and function of these amino acid in the isoforms, the corresponding cDNAs were subcloned in to the pAE vector (developed in our laboratory), as well as the mutant M20A (Sm14-A20). The stability and structure of the purified recombinant proteins were characterized by circular dicroism (CD). The comparison of their structure and thermo stability showed that the forms Sm14-T20 and Sm14-A20 are less thermostable than Sm14-M20 (&#916;Tm around 10ºC). However, all of the Sm14 forms were capable to bind the DAUDA [11- (dansylamine) undecanoic acid] with similar affinities. To differentiate the fatty acid binding properties of Sm14 isoforms, displacement experiments of DAUDA with natural fatty acid were performed. From these data we can assume that the Sm14-M20 form binds better than the Sm14-T20 and Sm14-A20 forms of all natural fatty acid assayed. This suggests that the Sm14-20 protein is most stable and binds better the natural fatty acids than the Sm14-T20 form. Although the Sm14-T20 protein has less structure, it maintains the capacity to bind fatty acids. It is still unknown the functional role of this Sm14 protein polymorphism in the metabolism of S. mansoni worms. Stability problems of the recombinant Sm14 protein during its transport and storage, could hamper its use as vaccine. With the aim to improve the stability of this protein, it was made a mutagenese at the unique cysteine residue present in Sm14 at the position 62. This residue is responsible for the dimer formation and is related the loss of the terciary structure and precipitation of the protein. This cysteine was changed by serine (C62S) and for valine (C62V) by site directed mutagenesis, resulting in the proteins Sm14-M20S62 and Sm14-M20V62. The mutant forms did not present a higher thermal stability but the renaturation after heating at 80°C almost reached 100%, in contrast to Sm14 proteins with Cys62. These mutants conserved the &#946;-barrel structure after 3 months of storage at 4°C, in contrast to proteins with Cys62, as shown by circular dicroism analyses. After these studies, the Sm14-M20 isoform with the C62V mutation (Sm14-M20V62) was considered the best alternative to the antigen Sm14-T20 used up to now as the model for an experimental vaccine for S. mansoni. This indication should be confirmed by immunization and posterior challenge with S. mansoni cercaria.

This PhD thesis is the result of the combination of experimental and computational techniques with the aim of understanding the mechanism of action of de novo cyclic decapeptides with high antimicrobial activity. By experimental techniques the influence of the replacement of the phenylalanine for tryptophan residue in their antimicrobial activity was tested and the stability in human serum was also analyzed, in order to evaluate their potential therapeutic application as antitumor agents. On the other hand, the interaction amongst the peptide BPC194 c(KKLKKFKKLQ), the best candidate from the whole library of cyclic peptides, and a model anionic membrane was simulated. The results showed a structure-function relationship derived from the stable conformation of the peptides involved in the membrane permeabilization. As a result, a rational design was performed being BPC490 the peptide with best antimicrobial activity compared with the best active peptide from the original library. / Aquesta tesi doctoral resulta de la combinació d’estudis mitjançant tècniques experimentals i computacionals amb l’objectiu d’entendre el mecanisme d’acció de "de novo" decapèptids cíclics amb elevada activitat antimicrobiana. Experimentalment, es va avaluar la influència de la substitució dels residus de fenilalanina per triptòfan en la seva activitat antimicrobiana i també la seva estabilitat sèrum humà, per tal de valorar la seva possible aplicació terapèutica envers el càncer. Per altra banda, es va simular la interacció del pèptid BPC194 c(KKLKKFKKLQ), millor candidat de la biblioteca de pèptids cíclics, amb models aniònics de bicapa lipídica. Els resultats van posar en manifest una relació estructura-funció derivada de la conformació estable dels pèptids que participen directament en la permeabilització de la membrana. Es va procedir doncs al disseny racional de nous pèptids cíclics sent el pèptid BPC490 el que va presentar una millor activitat bacteriana en comparació amb el pèptid més actiu de la llibreria original.

In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden die molekularen Grundlagen für die Agonistspezifität des G-Protein-gekoppelten Rezeptors GPR34 untersucht. Mittels verschiedener funktioneller Versuche konnte an ausgewählten Orthologen des Rezeptors gezeigt werden, dass, im Gegensatz zu publizierten Daten, Lysophosphatidylserin (Lyso-PS) nicht der natürliche Agonist des GPR34 ist. Lediglich an einigen cyprinoiden Subtypen des GPR34 hat Lyso-PS surrogat-agonistische Effekte. Anhand eines detaillierten evolutionären Vergleichs von Orthologen konnten Bereiche des Rezeptors ermittelt werden, welche an der Ligandenbindung, und damit an der Agonistspezifität des GPR34 beteiligt sind. Durch Übertragung dieser Bereiche vom Karpfen-GPR34-Subtyp 2a auf den humanen GPR34 konnte dieser zu einem Lyso-PS-sensitiven Rezeptor modelliert werden. Weiterhin wurde Aminoethyl-Carbamoyl-ATP (EDA-ATP) als inverser Agonist an cyprinoiden Orthologen des GPR34 identifiziert. Die Erweiterung des möglichen Ligandenspektrums von Lipiden zu Nukleotidderivaten gibt Hinweise auf die Promiskuität der Bindungsstelle des GPR34. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass Lyso-PS nur eine zufällige Aktivität an einigen Orthologen des GPR34 hat. Mit Identifizierung eines Nichtlipides als invers-agonistischen Liganden ist die Suche nach dem natürlichen Liganden des GPR34 noch nicht abgeschlossen und sollte auf weitere chemische Entitäten ausgeweitet werden. / Lyso-PS (lyso-phosphatidylserine) has been shown to activate the G(i/o)-protein-coupled receptor GPR34. Since in vitro and in vivo studies provided controversial results in assigning lyso-PS as the endogenous agonist for GPR34, we investigated the evolutionary conservation of agonist specificity in more detail. Except for some fish GPR34 subtypes, lyso-PS has no or very weak agonistic activity at most vertebrate GPR34 orthologues investigated. Using chimaeras we identified single positions in the second extracellular loop and the transmembrane helix 5 of carp subtype 2a that, if transferred to the human orthologue, enabled lyso-PS to activate the human GPR34. Significant improvement of agonist efficacy by changing only a few positions strongly argues against the hypothesis that nature optimized GPR34 as the receptor for lyso-PS. Phylogenetic analysis revealed several positions in some fish GPR34 orthologues which are under positive selection. These structural changes may indicate functional specification of these orthologues which can explain the species- and subtype-specific pharmacology of lyso-PS. Furthermore, we identified aminoethyl-carbamoyl ATP as an antagonist of carp GPR34, indicating ligand promiscuity with non-lipid compounds. The results of the present study suggest that lyso-PS has only a random agonistic activity at some GPR34 orthologues and the search for the endogenous agonist should consider additional chemical entities.

Les symbioses rhizobienne et mycorhizienne à arbuscules sont deux endosymbioses racinaires jouant des rôles importants dans le développement des plantes en améliorant leur nutrition minérale. Les lipo-chitooligosaccharides (LCOs), produits par les bacteries Rhizobia et les champignons mycorhiziens, sont essentiels pour l'établissement de la symbiose rhizobienne et stimulent la mycorhization. Chez la légumineuse Medicago truncatula, trois récepteurs-like kinase à motifs lysin (LysM), LYR3, NFP et LYK3 sont impliqués dans la perception des LCOs. Le travail présenté a eu pour objectif la caractérisation biochimique de ces récepteurs et leurs applications potentielles. Les orthologues de LYR3 de M. truncatula ont été clonés et se sont tous révélés, à l'exception de celui du lupin, capables d'établir une interaction d'affinité élevée avec les LCOs mais pas avec les chitooligosaccharides de structure apparentée. Afin de mieux comprendre les bases moléculaires de la reconnaissance des LCOs, des échanges de domaine entre les protéines LYR3 de lupin et de Medicago ont été effectués et ont révélé l'importance du troisième domaine LysM dans l'interaction. L'exploitation des capacités de reconnaissance des LCOs par LYR3 à des fins biotechnologiques a été évaluée à l'aide de récepteurs chimériques constitués du domaine extracellulaire de LYR3 et du domaine kinase des récepteurs immunitaires AtCERK1 et EFR. Il est apparu que LYR3 peut être utilisé pour élaborer des récepteurs chimériques mais leur mode d'activation reste à optimiser. Enfin l'étude des deux récepteurs symbiotiques NFP et LYK3 suggère qu'ils sont régulés par phosphorylation suite au traitement par les signaux symbiotiques. L'ensemble de ce travail apporte un éclairage nouveau sur les mécanismes de perception des LCOs et sur les modifications associées à leurs récepteurs qui en résultent. / Arbuscular mycorrhization and rhizobial nodulation are two major root endosymbioses which play important roles in plant development by improving their mineral nutrition. Produced by Rhizobia bacteria and mycorrhizal fungi, lipo-chitooligosaccharides (LCOs) were shown to be essential for the formation of the rhizobial symbiosis and to have stimulatory effects on mycorrhization. In the legume Medicago truncatula three lysin motif (LysM) receptor-like kinases LYR3, NFP and LYK3 have been shown to be involved in LCO perception. Here work is presented aimed at the biochemical characterization and application of these important receptor proteins. Cloned from several legume species orthologs of M. truncatula LYR3, except from lupin, were shown to bind LCOs with high affinity, but not structurally-related chitooligosaccharides (COs). Domain swaps between the lupin and Medicago proteins were used as a tool to decipher the molecular basis of LCO recognition and revealed the importance of the third LysM domain for LCO binding. The possibility of exploiting the LCO-binding capacity of LYR3 in biotechnology, through the composition of chimeric receptors, was investigated by combining together the extracellular domain of LYR3 protein with the kinases of Arabidopsis thaliana immune receptors, AtCERK1 and EFR. The results suggest that LYR3 could be used for constructing biologically active chimeric proteins whose mode of activation needs to be improved. Finally studies on the two LysM symbiotic receptors NFP and LYK3 suggest that they are regulated by changes in their phosphorylation after symbiotic treatments. Together this work brings light on the mechanisms underlying LCO perception and the modifications that receptors undergo after their treatment with LCO.

A esquistossomose é a mais importante das doenças helmínticas humanas em termos de morbidez e mortalidade. A proteína Sm14 de Schistosoma mansoni, que pertence à família de proteínas ligadoras de ácidos graxos (fatty acid-binding proteins, FABPs) (Moser et al., 1991), mostrou um bom nível de proteção (65%) contra a esquistossomose em animais experimentais (Tendler et al., 1996). No presente trabalho foram desenvolvidos sistemas de expressão que possibilitará a produção da proteína Sm14 em larga escala em E.coli. Com o intuito de conhecer a estrutura do gene da proteína Sm14, foi clonado um fragmento de DNA genômico de S. mansoni que contém a seqüência codificante da proteína Sm14. Como os outros membros da família gênica das FABP, o gene para a proteína Sm14 contém quatro \"exons\" separados por três \"introns\" de 674, 585 e 42 bp. Esta é a primeira descrição da estrutura gênica de um membro das FABP correspondente a um helminto. A Sm14 é uma proteína que pode ser potencialmente usada como vacina. Estudamos a existência de polimorfismo em duas linhagens de S. mansoni endêmicas do Brasil: LE e BH. Para a análise de polimorfismo, a ORF correspondente à proteína Sm14 foi amplificada por RT-PCR do RNA total de vermes adultos de S. mansoni. Os produtos de amplificação independentes foram clonados no vetor pGEM-T e seqüenciados. As análises de seqüências mostraram duas isoformas principais para a proteína Sm14: Sm14-M20, com seqüência idêntica a proteína Sm14 previamente reportada para a linhagem de Puerto Rico de S. mansoni (Moser et AL., 1991), e Sm14-T20, onde o códon da Met20 (ATG) mudou para o códon de Thr (ACG) (polimorfismo M20T). Dois clones mostraram uma deleção de seqüência de aminoácidos correspondente ao \"exon\" 3 inteiro (clones &#916;Exon3), gerada por \"splicing\" alternativo. As outras trocas observadas acontecem em posições onde os aminoácidos são menos conservados e estão representados apenas por um único clone que podem ter sido obtidas por mutagênese na PCR. A metionina correspondente à posição 20 na Sm14 é altamente conservada nas FABP dos mais diversos organismos,e não se tem nenhuma outra proteína com treonina nesta posição. Para o estudo da estrutura e função destas isoformas, os cDNAs correspondentes foram subclonados no vetor pAE (desenvolvido no nosso laboratório), assim como o mutante M20A (Sm14-A20) construído para efeitos de comparação. A estabilidade e estrutura das proteínas recombinantes purificadas foram caracterizadas por dicroísmo circular (CD). A comparação da estrutura e termoestabilidade mostrou que as formas Sm14-T20 e Sm14-A20 são menos termoestáveis do que a Sm14-M20 (um &#916;Tm de aproximadamente 10°C). Porém, todas as formas de Sm14 foram capazes de ligar o DAUDA [ácido 11-(dansylamino) undecanoico] com a mesma afinidade. Para poder diferenciar as propriedades de ligação de ácidos graxos pelas isoformas, experiências de competição do deslocamento do DAUDA por ácidos graxos naturais, foram realizadas. A partir destes dados podemos assumir que a forma Sm14-M20 liga melhor todos os ácidos graxos naturais testados do que a forma Sm14-T20. Porém esta forma mantém a capacidade de ligar ácidos graxos, ao contrario do mutante Sm14-A20. Pode-se deduzir como resultado destas experiências que a proteína Sm14-M20 é mais estável e liga com maior afinidade os ácidos graxos naturais do que a forma Sm14-T20. Pelo visto, a proteína Sm14-T20 tem menos estrutura-&#946;, porém, mantém a capacidade de ligar moléculas hidrofóbicas. Ainda é desconhecido o papel funcional do polimorfismo da proteína Sm14 no metabolismo dos vermes de S. mansoni. Problemas de estabilidade da proteína Sm14 recombinante, durante seu transporte e armazenamento, comprometem sua viabilidade como vacina. Com o intuito de melhorar a estabilidade desta proteína, foi feita uma mutagênese no único resíduo de cisteína presente na Sm14 na posição 62. Este resíduo é responsável pela formação de dímeros, o que é relacionado a estabilização da perda de estrutura-&#946; e precipitação da proteína. Esta cisteína foi trocada por serina (C62S) e por valina (C62V) por mutagênese sítio dirigida, resultando nas proteínas Sm14-M20S62 e Sm14-M20V62. As formas mutantes não apresentaram maior termoestabilidade, mas a renaturação após o aquecimento a 80°C atingiu quase 100%, diferentemente das proteínas com Cys62. As proteínas com o resíduo de cisteina trocado foram as únicas formas que conservaram a estrutura de &#946;-barril após 3 meses de armazenamento a 4°C, como mostram as análises de dicroísmo circular, sendo a forma mais estável a proteína Sm14-M20V62. Após estes estudos, a isoforma Sm14-M20 com a mutação C62V (Sm14-M20V62) mostrou-se como a melhor alternativa ao antígeno Sm14-T20 usado até agora como modelo de vacina experimental para S. mansoni. Esta indicação deve ser confirmada em ensaios de imunização e posterior desafio com cercárias de S. mansoni. / The schistosomiasis is the most important human helmintic disease in terms of morbidity and mortality. The Sm14 protein of Schistosoma mansoni belongs to the family of fatty acid-binding proteins (FABPs) (Moser et aI. , 1991) and showed a good protection level as vaccine antigen against the schistosomiasis in experimental animals (Tendler et al., 1996). In the present work were developed systems for the expression of Sm14 protein that will facilitate its large scale production in E.coli.. In order to know the gene structure of the Sm14 protein, we amplified by PCR a genomic DNA fragment of S. mansoni that contains the coding sequence for the Sm14 protein. As the other members of the FABP family, the Sm14 gene contains four exons separated by three introns of 674,585 and 42 bp, respectively. This is the first detailed description of the genomic structure for a member of FABPs corresponding to a helmint. We also studied the existence of polymorphisms within two Brazilian endemic strains of S.mansoni: LE and BH. For the polymorphism analysis, the ORF corresponding to the Sm14 protein was amplified by RT-PCR from total RNA of S. mansoni adult worms. The independent amplified products were cloned into pGEM-T vector and sequenced. The sequence analyses showed two main isoforms: Sm14-M20, with identical sequence to that previously reported Sm14 protein from the Puerto Rican strain of S. mansoni (Moser et al., 1991), and Sm14-T20, where the codon for Met20 (ATG) was changed for the Thr codon (ACG) (M20T polymorphism). Two clones showed the same amino acid sequence deletion corresponding to the whole third exon (&#916;Exon3 clones), generated by alternative splicing. The other observed changes occurred in positions where the amino acids were less conserved and were just represented by only one clone that could be obtained by PCR mutagenesis. The methionine corresponding to the position 20 in Sm14 is highly conserved among FABPs and no other related protein has threonin in this position. To study the structure and function of these amino acid in the isoforms, the corresponding cDNAs were subcloned in to the pAE vector (developed in our laboratory), as well as the mutant M20A (Sm14-A20). The stability and structure of the purified recombinant proteins were characterized by circular dicroism (CD). The comparison of their structure and thermo stability showed that the forms Sm14-T20 and Sm14-A20 are less thermostable than Sm14-M20 (&#916;Tm around 10ºC). However, all of the Sm14 forms were capable to bind the DAUDA [11- (dansylamine) undecanoic acid] with similar affinities. To differentiate the fatty acid binding properties of Sm14 isoforms, displacement experiments of DAUDA with natural fatty acid were performed. From these data we can assume that the Sm14-M20 form binds better than the Sm14-T20 and Sm14-A20 forms of all natural fatty acid assayed. This suggests that the Sm14-20 protein is most stable and binds better the natural fatty acids than the Sm14-T20 form. Although the Sm14-T20 protein has less structure, it maintains the capacity to bind fatty acids. It is still unknown the functional role of this Sm14 protein polymorphism in the metabolism of S. mansoni worms. Stability problems of the recombinant Sm14 protein during its transport and storage, could hamper its use as vaccine. With the aim to improve the stability of this protein, it was made a mutagenese at the unique cysteine residue present in Sm14 at the position 62. This residue is responsible for the dimer formation and is related the loss of the terciary structure and precipitation of the protein. This cysteine was changed by serine (C62S) and for valine (C62V) by site directed mutagenesis, resulting in the proteins Sm14-M20S62 and Sm14-M20V62. The mutant forms did not present a higher thermal stability but the renaturation after heating at 80°C almost reached 100%, in contrast to Sm14 proteins with Cys62. These mutants conserved the &#946;-barrel structure after 3 months of storage at 4°C, in contrast to proteins with Cys62, as shown by circular dicroism analyses. After these studies, the Sm14-M20 isoform with the C62V mutation (Sm14-M20V62) was considered the best alternative to the antigen Sm14-T20 used up to now as the model for an experimental vaccine for S. mansoni. This indication should be confirmed by immunization and posterior challenge with S. mansoni cercaria.

Cette thèse explore des aspects du monde naturel par la lentille de l'information algorithmique. La notion de l'émergence, intuitivement reliée à tant de phénomènes naturels, se voit offrir une définition cadrée dans le domaine plus spécifique des statistiques algorithmiques. Capturant toutes deux l'organisation non triviale d'un objet, la sophistication et la profondeur logique sont relativisées à un objet auxiliaire puis remises en relation. Enfin, des modèles proposant une description locale des systèmes quantiques sont démontrés équivalents, ont leur coût de description quantifié et sont généralisés aux systèmes continus. / This thesis explores aspects of the physical world through the lens of algorithmic information. The notion of emergence, intuitively linked to many natural phenomena, is offered a definition framed in the field of algorithmic statistics. Both capturing non-trivial organization of an object, sophistication and logical depth are compared once relativized to an auxiliary object. Finally, models proposing a local description of the quantum systems are shown equivalent, have their description cost quantified and are generalized to continuous systems.

La dihydrofolate réductase humaine (DHFRh) est une enzyme essentielle à la prolifération cellulaire, ce qui en fait une cible de choix pour le traitement de différents cancers. À cet effet, plusieurs inhibiteurs spécifiques de la DHFRh, les antifolates, ont été mis au point : le méthotrexate (MTX) et le pemetrexed (PMTX) en sont de bons exemples. Malgré l’efficacité clinique certaine de ces antifolates, le développement de nouveaux traitements s’avère nécessaire afin de réduire les effets secondaires liés à leur utilisation. Enfin, dans l’optique d’orienter la synthèse de nouveaux composés inhibiteurs des DHFRh, une meilleure connaissance des interactions entre les antifolates et leur enzyme cible est primordiale. À l’aide de l’évolution dirigée, il a été possible d’identifier des mutants de la DHFRh pour lesquels l’affinité envers des antifolates cliniquement actifs se voyait modifiée. La mutagenèse dite ¬¬de saturation a été utilisée afin de générer des banques de mutants présentant une diversité génétique au niveau des résidus du site actif de l’enzyme d’intérêt. De plus, une nouvelle méthode de criblage a été mise au point, laquelle s’est avérée efficace pour départager les mutations ayant entrainé une résistance aux antifolates et/ou un maintient de l’activité enzymatique envers son substrat natif, soient les phénotypes d’activité. La méthode de criblage consiste dans un premier temps en une sélection bactérienne à haut débit, puis dans un second temps en un criblage sur plaques permettant d’identifier les meilleurs candidats. Plusieurs mutants actifs de la DHFRh, résistants aux antifolates, ont ainsi pu être identifiés et caractérisés lors d’études de cinétique enzymatique (kcat et IC50). Sur la base de ces résultats cinétiques, de la modélisation moléculaire et des données structurales de la littérature, une étude structure-activité a été effectuée. En regardant quelles mutations ont les effets les plus significatif sur la liaison, nous avons commencé à construire un carte moléculaire des contacts impliqués dans la liaison des ligands. Enfin, des connaissances supplémentaires sur les propriétés spécifiques de liaison ont put être acquises en variant l’inhibiteur testé, permettant ainsi une meilleure compréhension du phénomène de discrimination du ligand. / Human dihydrofolate reductase (hDHFR) is an essential enzyme for cellular proliferation and it has long been the target of antifolate drugs for the treatment of various types of cancer. Despite the clinical effectiveness of current antifolate treatments, new drugs are required to reduce the side-effects associated with their use. An essential requirement for design of new antifolates is a better understanding of how these drugs interact with their targets. We applied directed evolution to identify mutant hDHFR variants with modified binding to some clinically relevant antifolates. A saturation mutagenesis approach was used to create genetic diversity at active-site residues of hDHFR and a new, efficient screening strategy was developed to identify the amino acids that preserved native activity and/or conferred antifolate resistance. The screening method consists in a high-throughput first-tier bacterial selection coupled with a second-tier in vitro assay that allows for rapid detection of the best variants among the leads, according to user-defined parameters. Many active, antifolate-resistant mutants of hDHFR were identified. Moreover, the approach has proven efficient in rapidly assessing kinetic (kcat) and inhibition parameters of the hDHFR variants (IC50). Structure-function relationship analysis based on kinetic investigation, available structural and functional data as well as modeling were performed. By monitoring which mutations have the greatest effect on binding, we have begun to build a molecular picture of the contacts involved in drug binding. By varying the drugs we test against, we gain a better understanding of the specific binding properties that determine ligand discrimination.

Cette thèse présente un travail relatif à l'étude de la structure en spin longitudinal du nucléon. Le but est de déterminer la contribution des constituants du proton, quarks et gluons, à la formation de son spin 1/2. L'analyse s'appuie sur les données de l'expérience COMPASS qui bénéficie d'un faisceau de muons polarisés à 200 GeV diffusé sur les protons polarisés d'une cible d'ammoniac (NH₃) de 1,2 m de long. On mesure l'asymétrie de spin longitudinal des sections efficaces de diffusion profondément inélastique. On extrait la fonction de structure en spin du proton, g₁p, étendant la couverture cinématique mondiale à des régions inexplorées jusqu'à maintenant (0,0036 < x < 0,57; 1,03 < Q² (GeV/c)² < 96 et 23 < W² (GeV/c)² < 320). Les résultats, d'une grande précision statistique, sont inclus dans une analyse des données mondiales de g₁p, g₁d et g₁n (proton, deutéron et neutron) au 2ème ordre de QCD afin de paramétrer les distributions de quarks et de gluons polarisés. L'étendue de la couverture cinématique en x et Q² des données mondiales de g₁, un élément déterminant pour la sensibilité à la polarisation des gluons ΔG, s'avère trop limitée pour constituer une extraction précise de celle-Ci. Néanmoins, l'analyse QCD permet de déterminer la contribution du spin des quarks au spin du proton à 0.26<ΔΣ<0.33 à Q² = 3 (GeV/c)² dans le schéma MSbar. L'étude montre que l'incertitude principale sur ΔΣ est liée au choix des formes fonctionnelles utilisées dans la régression des données. Enfin, la règle de somme de Bjorken, qui constitue un test de QCD, est vérifiée avec une précision de 9% en utilisant les données de COMPASS uniquement. / The work presented in this thesis is related to the study of the longitudinal spin structure of the nucleon. The aim is to determine the contribution to the spin 1/2 of the proton in terms of its constituents, quarks and gluons. The analysis is performed on the data taken with the COMPASS experiment, which benefits from a polarised muon beam at 200 GeV scattered off polarised protons from an ammonia target of 1.2 m long. The double longitudinal spin asymmetry of deep inelastic scattering cross-Section. The spin-Dependent structure function of the proton g₁p is derived from these measurements, which extend the kinematic world coverage to unexplored region so far (0,0036 < x< 0,57; 1,03 < Q² (GeV/c)² < 96 and 23 < W² (GeV/c)² < 320).The results obtained with a high statistical precision are included in a Next-To-Leading order QCD analysis of world g₁p, g₁d and g₁n (proton, deuteron and neutron) data to parametrise the polarised quark and gluon distributions. The g₁ world coverage of the x and Q² kinematic domain, which is a key point in the sensitivity to the gluon polarisation ΔG, turns out to be too limited for an accurate ΔG determination. Nevertheless, the QCD analysis allows to determine the quark spin contributions to the proton spin to 0.26<ΔΣ<0.33 at Q² = 3 (GeV/c)² in the MSbar scheme. The dominant uncertainty on ΔΣ is related to the choice of functional forms assumed in the fit. Finally, the Bjorken sum rule, which constitutes a fundamental test of QCD, is verified on the COMPASS data alone with a precision of 9%.