nÃo hà / A hidroclorotiazida à um dos fÃrmacos mais prescritos no tratamento da hipertensÃo arterial em todo mundo. Tem sido extensivamente utilizada no Brasil, em programa pÃblico do MinistÃrio da SaÃde. Visando à verificaÃÃo da qualidade e dos custos dos medicamentos contendo este fÃrmaco, foram realizados testes de equivalÃncia farmacÃutica em comprimidos industrializados e cÃpsulas manipuladas. O doseamento (determinaÃÃo do teor) foi feito por cromatografia lÃquida de alta eficiÃncia, tendo mostrado precisÃo e especificidade. Dentre os trÃs medicamentos industrializados (genÃrico, similar e referÃncia), o medicamento genÃrico, apesar de mais de 40% mais barato em relaÃÃo ao de referÃncia, mostrou alteraÃÃes no teste de dureza, indicando menor resistÃncia dessa amostra aos processos de embalagem, armazenamento e transporte. Dentre os seis lotes provenientes de farmÃcias de manipulaÃÃo, um dos lotes, aquele com o menor custo do mercado, mostrou dissoluÃÃo em dois tempos insatisfatÃria, nÃo tendo sido aprovado na avaliaÃÃo inicial feita em todos os lotes de medicamentos estudados. / The hydrochlorothiazide is one of the medicaments more prescribed in the treatment of the arterial hypertension all over the world. It has been used extensively in Brazil, in public program of Ministry of Health. Tests of pharmaceutical equivalence were accomplished in industrialized tablets and manipulated capsules seeking the verification of the quality and of the costs of the medicaments containing this drug. The dosage (determination of the tenor) was done by chromatography liquid of high efficiency, showing accuracy and specificity. Among the three industrialized medicines (generic, similar and reference), the generic medicament, although it is more than 40% cheaper in relation to the reference, it showed alterations in the test of hardness, indicating smaller resistance of that sample to the packing processes, storage and transport. Among the six coming lots of manipulation drugstores, one of the lots, that with the smallest cost of the market, showed dissolution in two times unsatisfactory, not having been approved in the initial evaluation done in all the lots of studied medicaments.

Submitted by JÚLIO HEBER SILVA (julioheber@yahoo.com.br) on 2017-06-08T17:42:20Z No. of bitstreams: 2 Tese - Luciana Ferreira Fonseca Rodovalho - 2012.pdf: 14230343 bytes, checksum: 9caf67440c3b486da1aac79e7f782291 (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Luciana Ferreira (lucgeral@gmail.com) on 2017-06-09T11:07:50Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 2 Tese - Luciana Ferreira Fonseca Rodovalho - 2012.pdf: 14230343 bytes, checksum: 9caf67440c3b486da1aac79e7f782291 (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-06-09T11:07:50Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 Tese - Luciana Ferreira Fonseca Rodovalho - 2012.pdf: 14230343 bytes, checksum: 9caf67440c3b486da1aac79e7f782291 (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-09-28 / Conselho Nacional de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico - CNPq / Financiadora de Estudos e Projetos- Finep / Entacapone is a catechol-o-methyl transferase inhibitor used in association with carbidopa and L-dopa in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease. Currently, only one medication containing the association of these three substances is available on the market and it is under patent protection. The objectives of this study were the development and the physicochemical characterization of tablets containing the association of entacapone, carbidopa, and L-dopa using Stalevo® as a reference medication. The evaluation of possible incompatibilities between entacapone, carbidopa, L-dopa, and the excipients was carried out as a preformulation step. To achieve this, initially, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analyses were performed and, posteriorly, additional confirmatory studies were conducted using Fourier transformation-infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and optical microscopy. The tablets were developed using the wet granulation method and the wet granulation method in a high shear mixer and physicochemical parameters were evaluated both for the granulate (moisture, density, and flow) and the oral dosage forms developed (friability, hardness, average weight, disintegration, and content of active ingredient). The dissolution profile of the tablets obtained was assessed based on Stalevo®. Tablets containing entacapone should contain pharmacotechnical elements to promote its bioavailability, since it presents low solubility and low permeability. Therefore, for the development of tablets, different batches were produced using surfactants. Entacapone associated with carbidopa, magnesium stearate, and crospovidone presented signs of degradation, according to FTIR and microscopy. Thus, these excipients should be avoided in the development of solid dosage forms containing entacapone. The batches of core tablets developed during this study were approved regarding the physicochemical criteria, including the dissolution profile. The coated tablets containing poloxamer 407 presented dissolution profile similar to the reference medication. / O entacapone é fármaco inibidor da catecol-o-metil transferase no tratamento da doença de Parkinson, utilizado na forma de comprimidos em associação com carbidopa e L-dopa. Atualmente, existe no mercado apenas um medicamento contendo a associação dessas três substâncias, o qual se encontra sob proteção patentária. Este trabalho teve como objetivos o desenvolvimento e a caracterização físico-química de comprimidos contendo a associação de entacapone, carbidopa e L-dopa utilizando Stalevo® como medicamento referência. A avaliação de possíveis incompatibilidades entre entacapone, carbidopa, L-dopa e os excipientes foi feita como etapa da préformulação. Para tanto, inicialmente, foram executadas análises por calorimetria exploratória diferencial (DSC) e, posteriormente, foram conduzidos estudos adicionais confirmatórios utilizando as técnicas de espectroscopia no infravermelho por transformada de Fourier (FTIR) e microscopia óptica. Os comprimidos foram desenvolvidos utilizando método de granulação por via úmida em misturador de alto cisalhamento e os parâmetros físico-químicos foram avaliados tanto para o granulado (teor de umidade, densidade e fluxo) quanto para os comprimidos (friabilidade, dureza, peso médio, desintegração e teor). O perfil de dissolução dos comprimidos obtidos foi avaliado tendo como referência Stalevo®. Comprimidos contendo entacapone devem conter elementos farmacotécnicos que promovam biodisponibilidade, uma vez que este apresenta baixa solubilidade e baixa permeabilidade. Sendo assim, para o desenvolvimento dos comprimidos, foram produzidos diferentes lotes utilizando tensoativos. O entacapone associado a carbidopa, estearato de magnésio e crospovidona apresentou sinais de degradação, de acordo com as análises térmicas, por FTIR e microscopia óptica. Portanto, esses excipientes devem ser evitados em comprimidos contendo entacapone. Os lotes dos núcleos dos comprimidos desenvolvidos neste trabalho foram aprovados em relação aos critérios físico-químicos, inclusive quanto ao perfil de dissolução. Os comprimidos revestidos contendo poloxamer 407 apresentaram perfil de dissolução semelhante ao medicamento referência.

O tratamento farmacológico de patologias bucais é conduzido, geralmente, por via de adminis-tração local. No entanto, devido ao pouco tempo de permanência do fármaco no local de ação, esse tratamento pode ser bastante comprometido. Assim, este trabalho teve por objetivo o de-senvolvimento de formas farmacêuticas que proporcionem a liberação local de triancinolona na cavidade oral. Foram produzidos filmes e comprimidos mucoadesivos a partir de polímeros naturais como gelana e pectina. Os filmes bucais foram preparados por meio de evaporação do solvente (solvent casting) utilizando diferentes quantidades de polímeros. As matérias-primas e os filmes foram caracterizados fisico quimicamente utilizando espectroscopia vibracional (in-fravermelho com transformada de Fourier e Raman) e difração de raios X. As propiedades físicas e mecânicas dos filmes também foram avaliadas. Além disso, realizou-se os ensaios de mucoadesividade e de dissolução do fármaco. Os comprimidos foram preparados por com-pressão direta usando como base os polímeros naturais. Diferentes parâmetros em relação as misturas e as formulações foram avaliados tais como as propriedades de fluxo dos pós consti-tuintes, peso médio, dureza, friabilidade e desintegração. Em relação aos filmes bucais, estes foram obtidos com sucesso através de um método simples, sem a utilização de agentes reticu-lantes, ácidos ou solventes orgânicos. Todos apresentaram bons resultados nas propriedades avaliadas, no entanto as formulações com quantidades intermediarias de polímeros foram as melhores. Dentre as formulações de comprimidos preparadas, apenas 4 apresentaram boas ca-racterísticas, no entanto, os resultados dos ensaios de dissolução mostraram que estas formula-ções têm capacidade de agir como sistema de liberação controlada de fármacos. / Pharmacological treatment of oral pathologies is usually conducted by local administration. However, due to the short time the drug stays in the site of action, this treatment can be quite compromised. Thus, the objective of this work was to develop pharmaceutical forms that pro-vide the local release of triamcinolone in the oral cavity. Mucoadhesive films and tablets were made from natural polymers such as gellan and pectin. The buccal films were prepared by sol-vent casting using different amounts of polymers. The raw materials and films were characte-rized physically chemically using vibrational spectroscopy (FTIR and Raman) and X-ray diffraction. The physical and mechanical properties of the films were also evaluated. In addi-tion, the mucoadhesive and drug dissolution tests were performed. The tablets were prepared by direct pressing with the natural polymers. Different parameters in relation to mixtures and formulations were evaluated such as the flow properties of the constituent powders, average weight, hardness, friability and disintegration. In relation to oral films, these were successfully obtained by a simple method, without the use of crosslinking agents, acids or organic solvents. All presented good results in the evaluated properties, however the formulations with interme-diate amounts of polymers were the best. Among the tablet formulations prepared, only 4 sho-wed good characteristics, however, the dissolution test results showed that these formulations have the ability to act as a controlled drug delivery system.

A coerência do processo de fabricação, via granulação úmida, de comprimidos de dipirona sódica (500 mg) foi avaliada empregando ferramentas de qualidade e de estatística. No estudo foi desenvolvida base racional-científica objetivando determinar as etapas críticas do processo por meio da técnica de análise de modo e efeito da falha (FMEA). A análise de risco revelou as potenciais falhas do processo: variação da distribuição granulométrica da mistura final com elevado percentual de pó fino e problemas relativos a fluidez; ensaios de peso, espessura, dureza, friabilidade, tempo de desintegração e dissolução fora de especificação; não-uniformidade do conteúdo de dipirona sódica (OS) na mistura final e durante a compressão e ocorrência de laminação, capeamento, porosidade e aderência dos comprimidos às estações da máquina compressora. Os métodos analíticos relativos à determinação de (OS), empregando metodologia espectrofotométrica e de cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência (CLAE), foram previamente validados. As seguintes características de desempenho, em ambas metodologias analíticas, foram determinadas: especificidade, linearidade com coeficiente de correlação (r) > 0,99, repetibilidade aceitável com desvio padrão relativo (OPR) < 2% e precisão intermediária entre analistas e em dias diferentes. Além disso, a robustez e exatidão com percentual de recuperação entre 99,28% e 100,84% foram comprovadas para o método de CLAE. No que se refere às etapas críticas da validação do processo produtivo, foi elaborado plano de amostragem baseado nos critérios estabelecidos em compêndio oficial (FARMACOPÉIA BRASILEIRA, 1988), Guia da FOA (UNITEO STATES, 2003), duração de cada etapa de fabricação e tipo de equipamento utilizado. Além disso, foi empregada a lista Millitary Standard 105E (TAYLOR, ENTERPRISES, 1989). Os resultados relativos à estabilidade estatística do processo revelaram ausência de causas especiais. Os índices de capacidade Cp e Cpk foram calculados após avaliação da distribuição dos dados empregando teste de Anderson-Darling. Todos os dados apresentaram distribuição normal (p > 0,05), exceto àqueles relativos à uniformidade de conteúdo de OS na etapa de compressão. Esses dados foram tratados utilizando método proposto por Box-Cox (Iambda igual a 5) visando sua normalização. Os índices de capacidade Cp e Cpk. revelaram resultados > 1 e, portanto, permitiram determinar a consistência do processo e baixa probabilidade de falha. / The consistency of the metamizol tablets (500 mg) manufacturing process, via wetting granulation, was evaluated by quality and statistical tools. In this study, rational-scientific base was developed aiming determination of the critical steps of this process, using the Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA) technique. The risk analysis shows the potential failures of the process: variability of particle size distribution, high percentage of fine powder and flowability problems related to the final mixture; weight, thickness, hardness, friability, disintegration time and dissolution percentage of the tablets out-of-specifications; non-uniformity of the metamizol content in the final mixture and during the tabletting steps; laminating, capping, porosity and sticking of the tablets. The analytical methods performed by spectrophotometric and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), in order to assay metamizol, were previously validated. The following parameters were evaluated in both analytical methodologies: specificity, linearity with correlation coefficients more than 0.99, acceptable repeatability with relative standard deviation (RSD) less than 2% and intermediate precision between two different analysts and days. Besides that, the system suitability and accuracy were also proved by HPLC method. The recoveries obtained were between 99.28% and 100.84%. The sampling plan was elaborated according to official compendium (FARMACOPEIA BRASILEIRA, 1988), FOA Guidance (UNITED STATES, 2003), Military Standard 105E (TAYLOR ENTERPRISES, 1989), the duration of each step and the type of equipment used. This plan was just applied for critical steps identified by FMEA tool. The results related to the statistical stability of the process show no special cause. The capability indexes, Cp and Cpk, were calculated after the evaluation of the data distribution using Anderson-Darling test. Ali data showed normal distribution (p > 0.05), except for uniformity of metamizol content of the tablets. This data was treated by a method proposed by Box-Cox (Iambda equal -5.0) aimed at obtaining the normality of the data. The capability indexes, Cp and Cpk, obtained were all > 1. Therefore, this process can be considered consistent and with low probability of failures.

Foram produzidos comprimidos de liberação prolongada de teofilina baseados em matrizes hidrofílicas de misturas de hidroxipropilmetilcelulose e etilcelulose e polietilenoglicol. O planejamento estatístico de mistura Design Expert® foi empregado na seleção da composição do sistema de controle da liberação e, numa segunda fase, para otimização das formulações de comprimidos. Foram produzidas 26 formulações por compressão direta e as características físico-químicas dos comprimidos como peso médio, friabilidade, dureza e teor de fármaco foram determinadas. A porcentagem de teofilina liberada foi avaliada conforme o método da Farmacopéia Americana 30 ed. (2007), para cápsulas de liberação prolongada (Teste 10 - pá), por um período de 8 horas. Conforme as farmacopéicas os comprimidos produzidos apresentaram características físico-químicas de acordo com as especificações, com exceção das formulações 2 e 3, para o teste de friabilidade, cujos valores foram superiores. Entretanto, quanto ao ensaio de dissolução, a formulação 13, constituída por 30% de etilcelulose, atendeu aos valores preconizados para liberação prolongada de teofilina. As respostas obtidas dos experimentos foram introduzidas no programa Design Expert® que gerou superfícies de respostas nas quais foi possível avaliar a influência da composição nos parâmetros friabilidade e porcentagem de teofilina liberada na dissolução. Dessa forma, foi possível obter 3 formulações com etilcelulose (13,50% a 15,90%), metilcelulose tipo E4MCR (6,90% a 8,10%) e metilcelulose tipo K4MPRCR (0,30% a 0,60%), com as características desejadas empregando o planejamento estatístico de mistura, com o número mínimo de experimentos sem a necessidade de estudar todas as possíveis combinações experimentais, abreviando o trabalho com ganho de tempo. Os resultados encontrados para friabilidade e dissolução nas formulações otimizadas foram próximos dos previstos pela análise de regressão e dentro dos valores especificados na Farmacopéia Americana 30 ed. 2007. / Controlled release dosage forms of theophylline were prepared with hidrophyllic matrix using polymers as hydroxy-methyl-cellulose, hydroxy-ethyl-cellulose and polyethylenglycol. The program Design Expert® was used to select polymers composition and at the second moment, to optimized tablets formulations. It was obtained 26 formulations by direct compression that physical-chemical characteristics of tablets as weight deviation, friability, hardness and drug dosage were performed. Dissolution rate of these tablets were controlled by United States Pharmacopeia 30 ed. Test for theophylline extended-release capsules (test 10 - paddle) corresponding to 8 hours of experiment. The evaluation indicates that tablets produced were in accordance with Brazilian Pharmacopoeia 4 ed., and United States Pharmacopoeia 30 ed., except for formulations 2 and 3 that the values for friability were low. And about dissolution rate of these tablets only formulation 13 applied to preconized value for dissolution method for theophylline extendedrelease capsules. Design Expert® was fed with the results obtained from experiments that showed surface result after that it were possible to analyze the influence of the composition of components on the friability and dissolution rate of theophylline parameters. Considering the specifications, 3 formulations were obtained and were analyzed. The results obtained were close to results predicted for regression analysis and in accordance with Brazilian Pharmacopoeia 4 ed., and United States Pharmacopoeia 30 ed. The proposed experimental Design Expert® program strategy should allow a rapid evaluation and identification of the parameters important in determining the drug release rate from matrix tablets, providing a powerful support for their rational selection during preformulation studies and thus shortening the time necessary for the development of effective dosage forms with the desired drug release behavior.

A cefalexina é um antibiótico semi-sintético, derivado das cefalosporinas, que exibe amplo espectro de ação, sendo largamente empregado por via oral. No Brasil é comercializado na forma de comprimido revestido, por cinco laboratórios farmacêuticos diferentes. No presente estudo foram avaliados, do ponto de vista biofarmacotécnico, 2 especialidades farmacêuticas (A e B), sob a forma de comprimidos revestidos, contendo 500 mg de cefalexina, disponíveis no mercado nacional. A análise in vitro foi realizada para dois lotes (1 e 2) de cada produto (A e B), através de ensaios físicos e físico-químicos (peso médio, dureza, umidade, teor de cefalexina, teste e perfil de dissolução), com a finalidade de verificar sua conformidade com especificações estabelecidas pelos compêndios oficiais. Estudos de cinética de dissolução foram empregados para avaliação mais precisa quanto às características biofarmacotécnicas in vitro das respectivas formulações. Os estudos de bioequivalência entre os produtos A e B (lote 2) empregaram delineamento experimental cruzado aleatório, em dois períodos, utilizando-se 24 voluntários. Os parâmetros farmacocinéticos empregados nesta avaliação foram obtidos a partir de dados de excreção urinária da cefalexina, sendo sua concentração na urina determinada por cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência, através de metodologia desenvolvida e validada no presente estudo. A bioequivalência entre os produtos foi determinada a partir da análise estatística (ANOVA) dos seguintes dados: quantidade de cefalexina acumulada excretada na urina (Du acumulado); quantidade total de cefalexina excretada na urina no tempo infinito (Du∞); velocidade máxima de excreção urinária ([Ddu/dt]max). Os resultados das análises físicas e físico-químicas indicaram que ambos os produtos estudados apresentaram-se dentro das especificações farmacopéicas. Na avaliação da bioequivalência entre os mesmos, obtiveram-se intervalos de confiança dentro dos limites estabelecidos internacionalmente (80 a 125%), para todos os parâmetros avaliados, comprovando, desta forma, que os produtos A e B são bioequivalentes e, portanto, intercambiáveis. / Cephalexin is a semi-synthetic cephalosporin-derived antibiotic which has an extensive action spectrum, widely used by oral administration. In Brazil, where it is largely marketed, in a tablet coated way, five differents brands can be found. The goal of this study was to evaluate from the biopharmaceutic point of view two cephalexin 500 mg tablet brands (A and B) availables in brazilian market. In order to check its accordance with official pharmacopeial specifications, two lots (1 and 2) of each brand (A and B) were analysed in vitro through physical and physical-chemical assays in vitro tests (average weight, hardness, wet, cephalexin content, dissolution test). Both formulations were also submitted to dissolution kinetics studies to reach an accurate evaluation of their in vitro biopharmaceutics features. The bioequivalence studies between A and B brands (Iot 2) was based on an open randomized two period cross over design with twenty-four male and female healthy volunteers. Pharmacokinetics parameters used in this evaluation were obtained from cephalexin urinary excretion data; to assess urine cephalexin concentrations a high performance liquid chromatographic assay developed and validated in this study was used. Bioequivalence was confirmed using a multiway ANOVA and when the 90 % confidence interval for accumulated cephalexin amount excreted in urine (Du accumulated); total amount of cephalexín excreted in urine (Du∞ ) and maximum rate of urinary excretion ([dDu/dt]max), fell within the interval 80-125 %.No discrepancies between both cephalexin brands in physical-chemycal tests were found. Confidence intervals for pharmacokinetics parameters were inside the bioequivalence limits according with the international atandars (80-125%), demonstrating that A and B formulations can be considered bioequivalent and therefore interchangeable.

Formas farmacêuticas de liberação prolongada são especialmente eficazes no controle da hipertensão. A incorporação da furosemida neste tipo de sistema é adicionalmente justificável por se manter as vantagens de um diurético de alça, porém, com efeito menos intenso e mais duradouro, gerando menor desconforto ao paciente crônico e diminuição no número de administrações diárias. Considerando-se a limitada solubilidade da furosemida e as vantagens tecnológicas das ciclodextrinas (CD) e dos comprimidos matriciais hidrofílicos, procuro-se averiguar a influência da β-ciclodextrina (β-CD) ou hidroxipropil-β--ciclodextrina (HP-β-CD), incorporadas às formulações como misturas físicas ou complexadas ao fármaco, no perfil de liberação de comprimidos à base de hidroxipropilmetilcelulose (HPMC), desenvolvidos para modular adequadamente a liberação da furosemida por um período de oito horas. Para tanto, complexos de inclusão foram obtidos por liofilização e caracterizados por análise térmica e espectrofotometria. Comprimidos de 500 mg foram preparados por compressão direta. Mantiveram-se constantes nas formulações: furosemida (10%), HPMC (25%) e agente lubrificante (0,5%), variando-se a concentração do diluente. Avaliou-se, estatisticamente (ANOVA), a influência da adição de β-CD ou HP-β-CD ou lactose, nas eficiências de dissolução (ED) do fármaco. As ED foram calculadas a partir dos perfis de liberação, determinados após submissão dos comprimidos à dissolução, por 8 horas, utilizando-se meio tamponado pH 6,8 ou gradiente de pH. Os mecanismos de liberação foram indiretamente estimados por modelos matemáticos (ordem zero, primeira ordem ou Higuchi). A presença de ciclodextrinas nas formulações, tanto em mistura física quanto complexadas, gerou aumento significativo na velocidade e extensão de liberação da furosemida pelos comprimidos, propiciando cinética de acordo com o modelo de Higuchi. Adicionalmente, a complexação foi capaz de prover uma liberação pH-independente, representando significativa vantagem tecnológica. / Extended release dosage forms are especially effective for hypertension control. Additionally, the advantages of incorporating furosemide in such system is to keep the features of a loop diuretic, however, with a less intense and more lasting effect. Moreover, less discomfort to chronic patients and decreased number of daily administrations could be provided. Considering the limited solubility of furosemide and the technological advantages of cyclodextrins (CD) and hydrophilic matrix tablets, this work evaluates the influence of β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) or hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (HP-β-CD) on the release profile of hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC) tablets, aimed to modulate the drug release during an eight hour period The CD were incorporated to the formulations as physical mixtures or complexed with the drug. Thus, inclusion complexes were obtained by freeze-drying and characterized by thermal analysis and spectrophotometry. Tablets of 500 mg were prepared by direct compression. Furosemide (10%), HPMC (25%) and lubricant agent (0,5%) were kept constant in the formulations, varying the diluent concentration. The influence of β-CD or HP-β-CD or lactose addition, on the dissolution efficiency (DE) of the drug, was evaluated statistically by ANOVA. The DE were calculated performing dissolution assays of the tablets for 8 hours, using phosphate buffer at pH 6,8 or pH gradient as milieu. The release mechanisms were indirectly estimated by mathematical models (zero order, first order or Higuchi). The presence of CD in the formulations, even in physical mixture or complexed with the furosemide, demonstrated significant increase of the velocity and extension of the drug release, according to Higuchi\'s model. Nevertheless, the complexation was able to provide a pH-independent release, representing significant technological advantage.

As formas orais sólidas são as mais utilizadas pela sua facilidade de administração e transporte, além de proporcionarem maior estabilidade, se comparadas às líquidas ou semi-sólidas. Dentre os sólidos orais, os comprimidos destacam-se por apresentarem processo de fabricação relativamente fácil, com alta produtividade e baixo custo. A compressão direta é o método preferencial para a produção de comprimidos pois economiza tempo e energia, é ambientalmente menos agressiva e reduz investimentos em equipamentos e na estrutura da área de produção, por requerer menor número de etapas no processamento que os métodos tradicionais de granulação. A principal limitação para a aplicação desse processo é a baixa capacidade de compactação dos fármacos que requerem altas concentrações para obtenção do efeito terapêutico. Com o objetivo de desenvolver formulações contendo alto teor de fármaco por compressão direta foi utilizado o planejamento estatístico de mistura e o paracetamol como fármaco modelo, pelas propriedades deficientes de escoamento e compactação. O programa Design Expert® foi empregado e forneceu 19 formulações, que foram produzidas e avaliadas quanto ao índice de compressibilidade, ângulo de repouso, umidade, peso médio, friabilidade, dureza, doseamento, desintegração e dissolução. O programa Design Expert® foi alimentado com os resultados obtidos e as formulações foram otimizadas. A formulação otimizada que atendeu a todos os parâmetros de qualidade foi produzida e analisada. Os resultados encontrados foram muito próximos aos previstos pela análise de regressão, demonstrando que o projeto de mistura é uma ótima opção para a pesquisa e desenvolvimento, diminuindo o tempo despendido e o número de experimentos. / The solid oral forms are widely used, by easy administration and transport. They provide larger stability than a liquid or semi-solid. Among the solids orals the tablets appear for they present production process relatively easy, with high productivity and low cost. The direct compression is the preferential method for the production of tablets because is less aggressive for the environment, saves time and energy and reduces investments in equipments and in the structure of the production area, for requiring smaller number of stages in the production\'s process than the traditional methods of granulation. The main limitation for the application of that process is the low compaction capacity of the drugs that require high percentages for the therapeutic effect. The aim of this study was developing formulations containing high amount of drug by direct compression using the statistical planning of mixture and the paracetamol as drug model, for the deficient flow and compaction properties. The program Design Expert® was used and supplied 19 formulations that were produced and the compressibility index, angle, humidity, weight, friablility, hardness, assay, disintegration and dissolution were analyzed. The program Design Expert® was fed with the obtained results and the formulations were optimized. The formulation optimized that assisted all quality parameters was produced and analyzed. The obtained results were very close with the regression analysis, demonstrating that the mixture project is a great option for the research and development, reducing the spent time and the number of experiments.

This research project aimed to develop a condition monitoring system for the final production quality of pharmaceutical tablets and detection capping and lamination during powder compression process using the acoustic emission (AE) method. Pharmaceutical tablet manufacturers obliged by regulatory bodies to test the tablet's physical properties such as hardness, dissolution and disintegration before the tablets are released to the market. Most of the existing methods and techniques for testing and monitoring these tablet's properties are performed at the tablet post-compression stage. Furthermore, these tests are destructive in nature. Early experimental investigations revealed that the AE energy that is generated during powder compression is directly proportional to the peak force that is required to crush the tablet, i. e. crushing strength. Further laboratory and industrial experimental investigation have been conducted to study the relationship between the AE signals and the compression conditions. Traditional AE signal features such as energy, count, peak amplitude, average signal level, event duration and rise time were recorded. AE data analysis with the aid of advanced classification algorithm, fuzzy C-mean clustering showed that the AE energy is a very useful parameter in tablet condition monitoring. It was found that the AE energy that is generated during powder compression is sensitive to the process and is directly proportional to the compression speed, particle size, homogeneity of mixture and the amount of material present. Also this AE signal is dependent upon the type of material used as the tablet filler. Acoustic emission has been shown to be a useful technique for characterising some of the complex physical changes which occur during tabletting. Capping and lamination are serious problems that are encountered during tabletting. A capped or laminated tablet is one which no longer retains its mechanical integrity and exhibit low strength characteristics. Capping and lamination can be caused by a number of factors such as excessive pressure, insufficient binder in the granules and poor material flowabilities. However, capping and lamination can also occur randomly and they are also dependent upon the material used in tabletting. It was possible to identify a capped or laminated tablet by monitoring the AE energy level during continuous on-line monitoring of tabletting. Capped tablets indicated by low level of AE energy. The proposed condition monitoring system aimed to set the AE energy threshold that could discriminate between capped and non-capped tablets. This was based upon statistical distributions of the AE energy values for both the capped and non-capped tablets. The system aims to minimise the rate of false alarms (indication of capping when in reality capping has not occurred) and the rate of missed detection (an indication of non capping, when in reality capping has occurred). A novel approach that employs both the AE method and the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve was proposed for the on-line detection of capping and lamination during tabletting. The proposed system employs AE energy as the discriminating parameter to detect between capped and non-capped tablets. The ROC curve was constructed from the area under the two distributions of both capped and non-capped tablet. This curve shows a trade-off between the probabilities of true detection rate and false alarm rate for capped and non-capped tablet. A two-graph receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve was presented as a modification of the original ROC curve to enable an operator to directly select the desired energy threshold for tablet monitoring. This plot shows the ROC co-ordinate as a function of the threshold value over the entire threshold (AE energy) range for all test outcomes. An alternative way of deciding a threshold based on the slope of the ROC curve was also developed. The slope of the ROC curve represents the optimal operating point on the curve. It depends upon the penalties cost of capping and the prevalence of capping. Sets of guidelines have been outlined for decision making i.e. threshold setting. These guidelines take into account both the prevalence of capping in manufacturing and the cost associated with various outcomes of tablet formation. The proposed condition monitoring system also relates AE monitoring to non-AE measurement as it enable an operator predicting tablet hardness and disintegration form the AE energy, a relationship which was established in this research.

Sildenafil citrate (SC) is a phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitor that is used to treat pulmonary hypertension (PH) in paediatric patients. The purpose of these studies was to develop a formulation and manufacture an orodispersible tablet (ODT) that can be easily administered to neonates and children with PH. The advantages of ODT dosage forms include ease of administration, rapid dissolution of the API, SC. Furthermore the dosage form can be taken without water which is beneficial to patients without immediate access to potable fluids. A simple, rapid, accurate, precise and selective reversed-phase HPLC method was developed and validated in accordance with International Conference on Harmonization (ICH) guidelines and was successfully used for the analysis of SC as raw material and in SC containing pharmaceutical dosage forms. Preformulation studies were performed on SC, alone and in combination with potential excipients that could be used to make tablets. Investigations into potential interactions between SC and the excipients were performed using Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) and Infrared Spectroscopy (IR). DSC results revealed that SC was compatible with all potential excipients except mannitol and magnesium stearate. However these interactions were not observed with IR and therefore it was concluded that the interactions were induced by the high temperatures that DSC operates at. Particle size and shape was also established by use of Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and flow properties were monitored by calculating Carr’s Index (CI) and the Hausner Ratio (HR). Direct compression was used as the method of manufacture for SC tablets as this approach is simple and the most economic production approach. The powder blends were assessed for bulk and tapped density and the CI and HR were used to determine the flowability of the blends. The quality attributes of the resultant tablets that were monitored included uniformity of weight, friability, crushing strength, tensile strength, disintegration, wetting and in vitro dispersion times. Design of Experiments is an efficient statistical approach that has become a popular tool used in the pharmaceutical industry to optimize formulation compositions, as it allows for the investigation of several input factors at the same time whilst not using the tedious and traditional “ modification of one variable at a time” approach. A Central composite experimental design was chosen as the most appropriate means to optimize the formulation as it produces more accurate results as opposed to other experimental designs approaches as input factors are investigated at five different levels. Through the use of mathematical modelling, optimum concentrations of disintegrant(s) and an appropriate blending time were established. Analysis of the data from the experimental design and mathematical modelling studies reveal that no changes in disintegrant concentration or blending time altered the disintegration time of the formulation to any significant extent. This result is most likely due to the fact that the critical disintegrant concentration has been reached and increasing the disintegrant concentration further has no effect on disintegration time. It was also established that a change in the concentration of CMS and CRP altered the wetting time of the tablet significantly. Finally it was noted that there was a linear relationship between blending time and the uniformity of content of the tablets produced in these studies. The optimized product was a white tablet with a diameter of 7.31 mm with a thickness of 2.80mm.The dosage form had no visible cracks or evidence of picking or sticking. The tablet exhibits suitable friability and tensile strength while exhibiting a disintegration time of only 8s. Therefore an orodispersible tablet containing SC intended for paediatric use has been successfully developed, manufactured and optimized through the use of preformulation studies, appropriate quality control monitoring and mathematical modelling. These formulations require further optimization in respect of addition of flavours and or additional sweetening agents.