The world's seas are without a doubt being changed by global warming, affecting all species, causing ecosystem changes. The overall low biodiversity in the Baltic Sea leads to sensitive unique qualities. Understanding how climate change in the Baltic Sea will affect key species is important to understanding how the Baltic Sea coastal environment will look in the future. Fucus vesiculosus, and Zostera marina, are key habitat building vegetation in the Baltic Sea, building up most of the canopies by the coasts on rocky and sandy bottoms. How are these species affected by climate change in the Baltic Sea? The result showed that both Fucus and Zostera growth is stimulated during most of the year with rising temperatures, but during summer heatwaves inhibit the plants, raising the mortality. Fucus will migrate more south, as the Baltic Sea will likely become fresher, and Zostera will continue to thrive if nutrients are reduced. Both species will experience die-offs during summer heatwaves. / Världens hav förändras utan tvekan av den globala uppvärmningen, vilket påverkar alla arter och leder till ekosystem förändringar. Den övergripande låga biologiska mångfalden i Östersjön leder till känsliga unika förhållanden. Att förstå hur klimatförändringarna i Östersjön kommer att påverka nyckelarter är viktigt för att förstå hur Östersjöns kustmiljö kommer att se ut i framtiden. Fucus vesiculosus och Zostera marina, är viktiga habitatsbildande växter i Östersjön, som bygger upp majoriteten av ekosystemen vid kusterna på steniga och sandiga bottnar. Hur påverkas dessa arter av klimatförändringar i Östersjön? Resultatet visade att tillväxten av både Fucus och Zostera stimuleras under större delen av året med stigande temperaturer, men under sommaren hämmar värmeböljor växterna, vilket ökar dödligheten. Huvudslutsatserna är att Fucus kommer att vandra mer söderut, eftersom Östersjön med största sannolikhet kommer att bli sötare från norr, och Zostera kommer fortsätta trivas om näringsmängden minskar. Båda arterna kommer drabbas av dödsfall under värmeböljor på sommaren.

The Baltic Sea is highly affected by eutrophication, but more knowledge is needed regarding how this influences many of the organisms that live there. One understudied species is the moss animal Einhornia crustulenta. In this study, steps are taken towards better understanding the ecology of E. crustulenta and how it might be influenced by eutrophication. This was done by two experiments. In the first experiment, it was tested whether E. crustulenta can feed on some phytoplankton species connected to eutrophication in the Baltic Sea (including e.g. the filamentous cyanobacteria Nodularia spumigena and Aphanizomenon flos-aquae and the flagellate Prymnesium parvum). In the other experiment, it was tested whether the snail Theodoxus fluviatilis and the isopod Idothea baltica are potential predators on E. crustulenta in the Baltic Sea. The results show that E. crustulenta are able to feed on e.g. N. spumigena and P. parvum and thus might be benefitted by eutrophication. Furthermore, the results show that neither T. fluviatilis nor I. baltica seem to feed on E. crustulenta. The results from both studies imply that E. crustulenta might benefit from eutrophication in the Baltic Sea and expand without control from predators. Here, some steps have been taken towards better understanding the ecology of E. crustulenta, but further research is needed. Future studies could include more potential predators and also study earlier life stages of E. crustulenta.

This essay examines policy discourses in the 30th Baltic Parliamentary Conference held in 2021. By examining several policy proposals from the resolution adopted by the participants, as well as related key documents and speeches from parliamentarians, the underlying assumptions and logics shaping these policys are examined. The thesis analyses whether there are gendered patterns in the policy discourses. The policy areas examined are about cooperation, identity, climate, and the environment. The material is analysed by combining the theory feminist discursive institutionalism and by using Carol Bacchi's method "What's the problem represented to be?". The conclusions are that there are many underlying problematisations that contribute to shaping policies in the 30th Baltic Sea Conference, which are supported by hidden gender coded language. The problematisations underpinning the policys are ”hiding” other ways of evaluating and shaping problems, solutions, and policy areas.

Wave heights and periods of surface waves in the Baltic Sea have been modelled for a two-year period (1999-2000) with the wave model Hypas on an 11x11-km grid scale. There is a clear seasonal variation with higher waves during winter and lower during summer. This is mainly a reflection of the wind climate in the area where the winters are windier than the summers. The largest waves are found in the Skagerrak and over the deeper, eastern areas in the Baltic Proper. In the Baltic Sea, the surface waves influence the bottom sediment by initiating resuspension down to 80 m depths. This process is dependent not only on the waves but also on the varying grain size diameters. Fine and medium sand resuspend more often than other sediment types, and these sediments cover together about 25% of the Baltic Proper area. On average sediment is here resuspended 4-5 times per month with a duration for each event of 22 hours. The highest resuspension frequencies are found on the eastern and southern side of the Baltic Proper. During resuspension sediment grains are lifted up into the water mass and matters earlier bound in the sediment can be released. This may stimulate both production and degradation of organic matter.

This thesis compares conventional agriculture and Ecological Recycling Agriculture (ERA) in terms of their environmental and socio-economic effects. Environmental effects include greenhouse gas emissions and energy use, but this analysis focuses on nutrient losses. Socio-economic effects include production, costs and benefits at macro, firm and household level. Comparisons were made at regional (Baltic Sea), national (Swedish) and local (community/municipality) level. At regional level, the main challenge is to make agriculture more environmentally friendly and reduce nutrient losses, while maintaining food production. At national level, the challenges are to shift the product mix towards more vegetables and less meat and to address the geographical division between animal and crop production. At local level, the challenge is to achieve sustainable environmental, economic and social rural development. At regional level, the empirical findings were scaled up to create three scenarios. In one scenario, agriculture in Poland and the Baltic States was transformed to resemble the Swedish average structure and resource use, which gave increased nitrogen and phosphorus surplus and substantially increased food production. Two other scenarios in which agriculture in the entire Baltic Sea area converted to ERA gave reductions in nitrogen surplus and eliminated the phosphorus surplus, while food production decreased or remained stable, depending on the strategy chosen. At national level, the environmental effects of different production methods, transport and different food baskets were compared. A household survey was performed to construct an alternative food basket, which was high in vegetables, low in meat and high in locally produced organic food compared with the average Swedish food profile. It was also 24% more expensive. Food basket content was found to be as important as production method in reducing environmental effects. Local production and processing was less important. At local level, an importer and wholesaler of organic fruit and vegetables and a group of environmentally concerned consumers were studied. The business was found to be resilient, i.e. well-suited to adapt to turbulence, and with a history of being innovative. / I den här avhandlingen jämförs konventionellt jordbruk med ekologiskt kretsloppsjordbruk. Jämförelsen görs med avseende på miljöeffekter och socio-ekonomisk påverkan. Av miljöeffekterna är fokus på läckage av växtnäring men utsläpp av växthusgaser samt energianvändning studeras också. Till de socio-ekonomiska effekterna räknas effekter på produktionsvolym samt kostnader och nyttor på såväl samhälls- som företags- och hushållsnivå. Jämförelsen görs på regional (Östersjöområdet), nationell (Sverige) och lokal (Järna/Södertälje kommun) nivå. På regional nivå är den stora utmaningen att omvandla jordbruksproduktionen i miljövänlig riktning och att minska närsaltsbelastningen samtidigt som produktionen hålls uppe. På nationell nivå är en utmaning att ändra produktionssammansättningen mot mer vegetabilier och mindre kött samt att minska den geografiska uppdelningen av djurhållning och spannmål. På lokal nivå är utmaningen att uppnå en hållbar landsbygdsutveckling ur miljömässigt såväl som ekonomiskt och socialt perspektiv. Resultat: på regional nivå beräknas miljöpåverkan och påverkan på livsmedelsproduktion i tre olika scenarier. Enligt ett scenario omvandlar Polen och de baltiska staterna sina jordbrukssektorer efter samma struktur och resursanvändning som ett genomsnittligt svenskt jordbruk. Det resulterar i att överskottet av kväve och fosfor i jordbruket ökar med 58% respektive 18% samtidigt som livsmedelsproduktionen ökar betydligt. Två andra scenarier där jordbruket i hela Östersjöregionen ställer om till ekologiskt kretsloppsjordbruk resulterar i reduktion av kväveöverskottet från jordbruket med 47-61% samt att fosforöverskottet elimineras. I de här scenarierna skulle livsmedelsproduktionen minska eller vara i princip oförändrad beroende på vilken strategi som väljs. På nationell nivå jämförs miljöpåverkan av olika produktionsmetoder, av transporter samt av olika matkassar. En hushållsstudie genomfördes i en grupp miljömedvetna konsumenter för att konstruera en alternativ matkasse. Matkassen innehöll en stor andel grönsaker, en liten andel kött och mycket lokalt och ekologiskt producerad mat jämfört med en genomsnittlig svensk matkasse. Den var även 24% dyrare i inköp. Det visade sig att miljöbelastningen påverkades väl så mycket av matkassens innehåll som av produktionsmetod. Lokal produktion och förädling var inte lika betydelsefullt. På lokal nivå studerades en grossist och importör av ekologiska frukter och grönsaker samt en grupp av miljöengagerade konsumenter (hushållsstudien ovan). Semistrukturerade intervjuer användes för att studera företaget, som visade sig vara resilient, det vill säga väl förberett för att klara turbulens på marknaden. Företaget karaktäriserades av ekonomisk stabilitet och en tradition av att vara innovativt. Ett exempel är Ekolådan, den första helt ekologisk hemleveransen av frukt och grönsaker i Stockholmsområdet. I den studerade regionen (Södertälje kommun) är efterfrågan på ekologiska livsmedel – från såväl hushåll och företag och andra organisationer som kommunen själv – hög jämfört med övriga Sverige. EU:s utvidgning innebär en möjlighet till förändrad förvaltning av Östersjön och jordbrukssektorn. En omställning i stor skala till ekologiskt kretsloppsjordbruk skulle leda till miljöförbättringar. En hållbar förvaltning av Östersjön, något som överenskommits inom ramen för HELCOM, kan inte uppnås samtidigt som jordbruksproduktionen maximeras i länderna runt Östersjön. Jordbruket orsakar betydande externa kostnader. Betalningsviljan för en förbättrad Östersjömiljö är stor vilket motiverar investeringar i ett miljövänligare, hållbart jordbruk. Medlemmarna i HELCOM, däribland Sveriges regering, har såväl ekonomiska som miljömässiga incitament att utnyttja möjligheten som Polens och de baltiska staternas EU-medlemskap innebär. / <p>QC 20160523</p>

För att hålla ett behagligt inomhusklimat på fartyg krävs kylning under den varma tiden på året. Denna kylning kräver energi. Detta arbete är en undersökning om huruvida denna energiåtgång kan minskas genom så kallad frikylning. ROPAX-färjan Finntrader som trafikerar linjen Malmö–Travemünde har använts som exempel. Undersökningen utfördes genom att skapa en beräkningsmodell där ett köldbärarsystem med möjlighet till frikylning kopplades in i Finntraders nuvarande HVAC-system, tillsammans med nuvarande kylmaskiner. Statistik över lufttemperatur, luftfuktighet och sjövattentemperatur för perioden 2013–2015 införskaffades. Denna statistik fördes in i beräkningsmodellen. Resultatet av beräkningarna blev att en viss mängd energi kunde sparas med frikylning, hur mycket beroende på värmeväxlarnas effektivitet. Mängden energi som kunde sparas var förhållandevis liten jämfört med kostnaden för de komponenter modellen krävde. / To maintain a comfortable climate on board ships, cooling is necessary during the warm period of the year which requires energy. This thesis is a survey about whether so-called free cooling could reduce this energy consumption. The ROPAX-ferry Finntrader trafficking the route Malmö–Travemünde has been used as an example. This survey was carried out by creating a calculation model in which a brine system with a possibility of free cooling was connected to Finntrader’s current HVAC-system, alongside the current chillers. Statistics of air temperature, air humidity and sea water temperature was acquired for the period 2013-2015 and were inserted into the calculation model. These calculations showed that a certain amount ofenergy could be saved with free cooling, how much depending on the effectiveness of the heat exchangers. The amount of energy that could be saved was quite small compared to the cost of the components required by the model.

This dissertation evaluates the role and effectiveness of law in the transboundary environmental governance of the Baltic Sea with regard to eutrophication. To this end, it reviews the applicable international agreements with their related instruments, as well as the EU legal frameworks, for the protection of the Baltic Sea environment on the basis of theories on resilience in social-ecological systems. The scientific discourse on resilience in social-ecological systems provides theories on effective governance of complex environmental problems with nonlinear causal connections. The governance features identified in resilience governance also show significant similarities with characteristic features of the concept of ecosystem approach. The resilience features can thus provide guidance to the operationalization of this concept, which lacks a distinct meaning in the legal context. Eutrophication is one of the main environmental problems in the Baltic Sea. Despite the fact that this problem has been acknowledged since the 1970s, only little progress has been visible in the attempts to limit the problem. Environmental governance in the form of cooperation and common action has, however, been established by the coastal states of the Baltic Sea to reduce the discharges to their common resource. This was originally coordinated through the Helsinki Convention and its administrative organization HELCOM in the 1970s. Since the year 2000 a new set of legal instruments and approaches have developed, emphasizing also the ecosystem approach. These instruments have a basis both in HELCOM and in EU environmental law, most significantly represented by the Water Framework Directive and the Marine Strategy Framework Directive. They establish a unique regulatory structure, with new approaches to regulation, which also give rise to questions regarding interpretation and effectiveness that have not previously been analyzed. It is concluded that applicable law in the Baltic Sea area reflects resilience features such as adaptability, flexibility and redundancy within the legal structure. The legal structure for the Baltic Sea is dynamic and stretches over many levels of governance. The applicable legal instruments are constructed so as to be adaptable and flexible. The legal instruments moreover include significant elements that provide for participation at different levels and in different forms, which contribute to enabling the mentioned resilience features. However, the Baltic Sea legal structure – as law in general – has different core functions than just providing for effective environmental governance. Law is based in a number of general principles connected to the rule of law and the function of law as a foundation for stability in the society and in human interactions. These principles are also important since they are directly linked to enforcement, monitoring and control. While the legal structure in the Baltic Sea may provide for effective governance and social-ecological resilience, the resilience features reflected in law do not always appear as far-reaching as suggested by resilience theories, much due to the legal principles. It is however because of these principles and the base for binding requirements they enable, that law can push for governance measures and features that might not have been accomplished otherwise. This, in the larger perspective, includes creating requirements that steer human activities away from critical thresholds. / Baltic Ecosystem Adaptive Management, BEAM

In einem hydronumerischen Modell zur Prognose des Strömungs- und Wasserstandsfeldes flacher Gewässer wird eine auf der Turbulenztheorie basierende Tiefenkorrektur für den Bodenreibungsbeiwertwert eingeführt und auf der Basis von Berechnungen für die DarßZingster Boddenkette überprüft. Für einen ausgewählten Meßpunkt der Darß-Zingster Boddenkette wurde der Reibungsbeiwert sowohl am Boden als auch unter einer Eisschicht experimentell bestimmt. Die Auswirkungen einer Tiefenkorrektur des Reibungsbeiwertes wurden in einem vertikal integrierten hydronumerischen Modell untersucht. Dabei wurden die experimentell bestimmten Reibungsbeiwerte, sowohl für die Reibung am Boden, als auch für die Reibung unter einer Eisschicht im Modell benutzt. Das verwendete Modell zeigt mit den gemessenen Reibungsbeiwerten nach Einführung der Tiefenkorrektur eine bessere Übereinstimmung zwischen Modelldaten und amtlichen Pegelregistrierungen. / For simulation of the flow and water level field in shallow water is introduced a depth correction of the bottom drag coefficient based on the theory of turbulence in a hydronumerical model and tested on calculations for the "Darß-Zingster Boddenkette". The drag coefficient was determined experimentally on the bottom and under ice for a selected measurement point in the "Darß-Zingster Boddenkette". The result of the depth correction was tested with a depth integrated hydronumerical model. The experimentally deterrnined drag coefficient on the bottom and under ice was introduced in the model. The used model shows with the measured drag coefficient after using the depth correction better agreement between the numerically simulated and measured water level.

The marine ecosystems are fundamental for human welfare. A number of current environmental pressures need attention, and the formulation of management strategies requires information from a variety of analytical dimensions. The linkage between environmental change and resulting implications for human welfare is one such dimension. This thesis presents studies on welfare implications from hypothetical future policies which improve the state of the marine environment. The method for these studies is economic valuation. The studied scenarios concern eutrophication in the Baltic Sea (including the Kattegat) and oil spill risk from shipping in the Lofoten-Vesterålen area in the Arctic Barents Sea. The thesis shows that the economic benefits from undertaking policies to improve or protect the marine environment in these cases are substantial and exceed the costs of taking measures. In addition to providing new monetary estimates, the thesis also provides new insights concerning 1) what type of scenario to use when valuing an environmental improvement and 2) whether there may exist trade-offs between precision in estimates and the level of ambition with respect to survey instrument complexity and econometric models when conducting valuation studies. The findings suggest an end of an era for studies in which the environmental change is unspecified or based on a single environmental indicator while the actual consequences of the suggested measures are more multifaceted. In contrast, relevant scenarios to study are well-specified and holistic. The thesis further reveals that it might not always be worth the effort to go for the most advanced scenario presentation or statistically best-fitting model specifications. This is something that needs to be further discussed among practitioners in order to allocate valuation resources wisely and not waste resources on unnecessarily elegant valuation studies. / <p>QC 20161011</p>

<p>Over time, the Baltic Sea has been contaminated by increasing discharges of pollutants from human activities. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) have caused toxic effects in wildlife and excess of nutrients have led to eutrophication. Furthermore, there are indications that certain polyhalogenated compounds similar in structure to man-made POPs are produced by the biota present in this sea. In the late 1990’s both methoxylated polybrominated diphenyl ethers (MeO-PBDEs) and hydroxylated-PBDEs (OH-PBDEs) were identified in fish and seals living in this environment. OH-PBDEs can originate from metabolism of PBDEs, but both OH- and MeO-PBDEs are also known to be natural products in marine environments. Another group of POPs, the polybrominated dibenzo-<i>p</i>-dioxins (PBDDs), are not produced commercially, but are known to be by-products of chemical industry and of the combustion of, e.g., brominated flame retardants (BFRs). In contrast to the OH- and MeO-PBDEs, PBDDs have not previously been shown to be natural products, although certain related compounds have been indicated to have a natural origin.</p><p>This thesis describes the identification of PBDDs, OH-PBDEs and MeO-PBDEs in algae, blue mussels and fish living in the Baltic Sea. Several of these compounds were also detected in cyanobacteria. Moreover, PBDDs were present in fish, mussels, shrimp and crabs from different regions of the Baltic Sea and from the west coast of Sweden, but not in organisms from freshwater environments. The levels of these compounds in Baltic fish generally exceeded those of their chlorinated analogues. The origin of the PBDDs identified is somewhat unclear, but the high levels present in blue mussels and the pattern of congeners observed indicate natural production. The presence of PBDDs, OH-PBDEs and MeO-PBDEs in fish and shellfish constitutes a potential risk to both humans and wildlife and requires further investigation.</p>