Dans cette thèse, nous étudions le lien entre la distance culturelle perçue entre les immigrés et le groupe majoritaire français d’une part et les préjugés d’autre part, en examinant le point de vue des Français. Plusieurs facteurs peuvent influencer ce lien : l’adhésion au multiculturalisme par rapport à d’autres modèles d’intégration, la perception de ce modèle comme étant une menace à l’identité nationale ou encore la présentation du multiculturalisme en des termes abstraits (renvoyant à ses objectifs) ou concrets (renvoyant à sa mise en place dans un contexte national). Les résultats montrent que chez les Français qui adhèrent au multiculturalisme, la perception de distance culturelle corrèle plus faiblement avec les préjugés que chez les Français qui adhèrent à l’assimilation. En examinant davantage les attitudes intergroupes chez les Français qui adhèrent au multiculturalisme, nous avons montré que la perception de ce modèle comme étant menaçant pour l’identité nationale peut aussi influencer l’impact de la distance culturelle sur les préjugés : chez les Français qui perçoivent le multiculturalisme comme menaçant, la distance culturelle implique plus de préjugés que chez les Français qui le perçoivent comme moins menaçant. Une source de menace pour le multiculturalisme serait le degré d’abstraction de sa présentation, avec une menace plus importante lorsque l’on fait référence à la politique concrète mise en place dans un pays plutôt qu’au modèle idéal, abstrait. En effet, dans une étude comparative entre la France et les Pays-Bas, nous avons montré que le lien entre la distance culturelle et les préjugés à l’égard des immigrés est plus important lorsque le multiculturalisme est défini en termes concrets que lorsqu’il est défini en termes abstraits / In this thesis, we have studied – on the one hand – the way how perceived cultural distance between the immigrants and the French majority group is linked to prejudice by examining French people’s point of view. Several factors can influence this link: the endorsement to multiculturalism compared to other integration models, the perception of this model as a threat to national identity or the presentation of multiculturalism in abstract terms (i.e. its objectives) or concrete (i.e. its implementation in a national context). The results have shown that among the French who endorse multiculturalism, the perception of cultural distance weakly correlates with prejudice whereas it correlates more among the French who endorse assimilation’s integration model. By focusing on French people who prefer multiculturalism, we showed that the perception of this model as a threat to national identity can also influence the impact of cultural distance on prejudice. Among the French who perceive multiculturalism as threatening, cultural distance involves more prejudice than among those who perceive it as less threatening. A source of threat to multiculturalism could reside in the way it is presented – its degree of abstraction – with more threat when we refer to concrete policy achievement in a country rather than the abstract ideal model. Indeed, in a comparative study between France and the Netherlands, we showed that the link between cultural distance and prejudice towards immigrants is higher when multiculturalism is defined in concrete terms than with its abstract definition.

Dans le cadre de cette thèse, nous nous intéressons aux mécanismes sous-jacents à la menace du stéréotype (Steele & Aronson, 1995). Notre objectif principal est de proposer une explication à l’effet délétère de menace du stéréotype sur la performance des individus stigmatisés à travers les conséquences comportementales et cognitives des émotions émergeant dans cette situation. Nos travaux s’articulent autour de deux objectifs de recherche. En premier lieu, nous souhaitons montrer que la situation de menace du stéréotype est susceptible de déclencher aussi bien de la peur que de la colère chez les individus stigmatisés. Nous postulons que l’adhésion ou la non adhésion des individus au stéréotype dont ils sont la cible déterminerait l’émergence de peur ou de colère respectivement. En second lieu, nous examinerons les processus cognitifs et motivationnels par lesquels ces deux émotions diminuent la performance des individus stigmatisés. / In this PhD thesis, we investigate specific mechanisms underlying stereotype threat (Steele & Aronson, 1995). Our main claim is that deleterious effect of stereotype threat on the performance of stigmatized individuals can be explained by the behavioral and cognitive consequences of the emotions emerging in this situation. The aim of the research program is twofold. First, we tested the idea that stereotype threat is likely to trigger fear, but also anger, in stigmatized individuals. Specifically, we assume that the endorsement vs non- endorsement to the stereotype respectively determines the emergence of fear or anger. Second, we investigate the cognitive and motivational processes through which these two emotions lead to a decrease in the performance of stigmatized individuals.

Social anxiety is a disorder where people fear social interactions and is associated with physiological changes. Eye tracking studies have shown that people with social anxiety spent more time gazing at emotional faces presented on a computer screen and spent more time gazing at the eye region. There has been limited studies on tracking eye gaze in a real-life setting interacting with another person. We used a wearable eye tracker during a brief one-on-one interview about participants’ challenges faced at work or school. Along with self-report psychological measures about social anxiety and shyness, we also measured participants’ salivary cortisol as a metric for physiological stress. We hypothesized that socially anxious individuals would have higher cortisol levels and spent more time gazing at the face. However, there was no change in cortisol levels before and after the interview. In addition, socially anxious individuals had lower cortisol levels than less anxious people. Furthermore, the time spent fixating on the region of interest (ROI), which was the face, was not correlated with social anxiety, anxiety or shyness. Paradoxically, the more socially anxious participants seem to have had a lower physiological stress response than less socially anxious participants.

As a growing body of research has focused on the individual, social, and environmental factors that facilitate life after spinal cord injury (SCI), particular emphasis has been placed on health conditions that are modifiable and preventable. Subsequent injuries are a serious health problem for individuals with SCI. They are a direct threat to further morbidity and mortality, and are both a cause and consequence other secondary health conditions. As a first step toward understanding this public health problem, the purpose of this dissertation research was to describe the patterns, burdens, and prevention of subsequent injury among individuals with SCI. In three distinct, but related studies, this dissertation examined the characteristics of hospitalizations due to an injury among individuals with paraplegia, and compared the differences in length of stay (LOS) and hospital costs of injury hospitalizations between individuals with quadriplegia versus paraplegia. In addition, it explored the experience of subsequent injury among individuals with SCI who return to work and examined perceptions of threat and efficacy in preventing subsequent injury using the Extended Parallel Process Model. Using discharge level weighting available in the Nationwide Inpatient Sample, Study 1 calculated national estimates of injury hospitalizations for individuals with paraplegia by patient, hospital, and injury characteristics. Most injury hospitalizations occurred among males, to individuals 35-49 years, and were due to falls, poisonings, or motor vehicle traffic. With the same dataset, Study 2 used logistic regression to estimate the effect of patient characteristics on odds of hospitalized patients with quadriplegia versus paraplegia, and linear regression to estimate predicted differences in hospital costs for individuals with quadriplegia compared to paraplegia. Fewer injury hospitalizations but longer hospital stays, and higher hospital costs per discharge were found for individuals with quadriplegia compared to individuals with paraplegia. Males, younger age, and the uninsured were significant predictors of higher hospital costs. Finally, Study 3 used in-depth interviews to qualitatively explore the perceptions on subsequent injury among individuals with SCI who return to work, and found individuals with SCI who return to work recognized the importance of preventing subsequent injury, and were taking actions to prevent subsequent injury in their daily life and in the workplace. The significance of this research is that it is the first description of injury hospitalizations for all causes of injury by specific type of SCI, and the associated medical outcomes of LOS and direct medical costs. Prevention of subsequent injury should be a priority. The perceptions of individuals with SCI about the severity of and their susceptibility to injury and the efficacy of individual and environmental actions to prevent subsequent injury described in this research should be used to inform the development of interventions that prevent subsequent injury.

本論文的重點在建立人民、民意代表及行政機關三者之間的互動模式。其 中，人民雖然無法組織成一有效的團體，但對政治的意識程度卻反映在民 意代表的函數裡。在民意代表與行政機關進行利益交換的過程中，遊說與 補助款的取得雙方個別的標的。不論原先主導權掌握在誰的手上，經過賄 賂之後，議價的結果都會相同，這樣的情況和 Coase定理有相似之處，但 是由於人民無法參與議價，所以最後的效率只是次佳的選擇。

<p>Many embedded systems are complex, and it is often required that the firmware in these systems are updatable by the end-user. For economical and confidentiality reasons, it is important that these systems only accept firmware approved by the firmware producer.</p><p>This thesis work focuses on creating a security enhanced firmware update procedure that is suitable for use in embedded systems. The common elements of embedded systems are described and various candidate algorithms are compared as candidates for firmware verification. Patents are used as a base for the proposal of a security enhanced update procedure. We also use attack trees to perform a threat analysis on an update procedure.</p><p>The results are a threat analysis of a home office router and the proposal of an update procedure. The update procedure will only accept approved firmware and prevents reversion to old, vulnerable, firmware versions. The firmware verification is performed using the hash function SHA-224 and the digital signature algorithm RSA with a key length of 2048. The selection of algorithms and key lengths mitigates the threat of brute-force and cryptanalysis attacks on the verification algorithms and is believed to be secure through 2030.</p>

<p>The Heimdal Framework presented in this thesis is a step towards an unambiguous framework that reveals the objective strength and weaknesses of the security of components. It provides a way to combine different aspects affecting the security of components - such as category requirements, implemented security functionality and the environment in which it operates - in a modular way, making each module replaceable in the event that a more accurate module is developed. </p><p>The environment is assessed and quantified through a methodology presented as a part of the Heimdal Framework. The result of the evaluation is quantitative data, which can be presented with varying degrees of detail, reflecting the needs of the evaluator. </p><p>The framework is flexible and divides the problem space into smaller, more accomplishable subtasks with the means to focus on specific problems, aspects or system scopes. The evaluation method is focusing on technological components and is based on, but not limited to, the Security Functional Requirements (SFR) of the Common Criteria.</p>

<p>Bilder av potentiella hot upptäcks snabbt och leder till en snabbare reaktionstid än bilder av icke-potentiella hot. Potentiella hot stjäl också fokus och kognitiva resurser, med en långsammare reaktionstid som följd. Rädsla, som kan mätas genom startlereflexen, leder till antingen ökad handlingsberedskap (snabbare reaktionstid) eller kognitiv distraktion (långsammare reaktionstid). Fem försöksdeltagare fick reagera på en visuell probe som lades ovanpå djurbilder, både potentiella hot och icke-potentiella hot i ett kombinerat reaktionstids- och startleprobeexperiment, där ljudstötar utdelades i hörlurar. Startlereaktion, hjärtfrekvens och reaktionstid mättes, varefter korrelationskoefficienter räknades ut. Resultatet visade på en svag negativ korrelation mellan reaktionstid och startlepotentiering på gruppnivå, men inga signifikanta samband påvisades på individnivå. Resultatet på gruppnivå kan bero på att de individuella resultaten tenderar samlas i kluster och därför skapar ett skensamband. Även en positiv korrelation mellan hjärtfrekvensförändring och startlereaktion påvisades, men ingen korrelation mellan hjärtfrekvens och reaktionstid.</p> / <p>Pictures of fear relevant animals are detected fast and lead to shorter reaction time, compared to pictures of fear irrelevant animals. Fear relevant animals also capture attention and steals focus, which leads to slower reaction time. Fear leads to either preparedness for action (faster reaction time) or cognitive distraction (slower reaction time). In a combined startle probe and reaction time experiment, five participants were requested to react to a visual probe, superimposed on pictures of animals, both relevant and irrelevant to fear. Startle probes were given as noise bursts in headphones. Startle reaction, heart rate and reaction time were measured. A negative correlation between reaction time and startle potentiation was found on group level, whereas no significant correlations were found on the individual level. However, the individual results tend to gather in clusters, which might give a significant result on group level even if there is none.</p>

<p>Even though terrorism has been on the political agenda for several years there is no general accepted definition of the phenomena of terrorism. Several scientist do also apply that terrorism have changed after the 9/11-attacks. The purpose with this thesis was to analyze and compare the image of terrorism represented by the United States, United Kingdom, Sweden and Norway, in an attempt to draw conclusions about similarities and differentials. The material that was used was these four nations individual counter terrorism strategy. This was made by using idea analysis and self constructed dimensions based on earlier science about security, terrorism and international law. A result of this study showed that there is a consensus about terrorism as a high existential threat because of the religious extremism that is related to Al Qaeda and justifies mass murder and have showed attempt to acquire weapons of mass destruction. On this adoption the nations in this study justifies extraordinary actions in cooperation against global terrorism. It is however some differentials about the means to counter this threat. The United States, United Kingdom and Norway describes in their strategy that the threat of Al Qaeda and its allies should be met by military force. United Kingdom describes that the military action is to consider as an exception based on the extraordinary threat that Al Qaeda poses. Sweden on the other hand shows a description of terrorism as a criminal act that should be met by national measures.</p>

Cyber attacks against companies and organizations can result in high impact losses that include damaged credibility, exposed vulnerability, and financial losses. Until the 21st century, insiders were often overlooked as suspects for these attacks. The 2010 CERT Cyber Security Watch Survey attributes 26 percent of cyber crimes to insiders. Numerous real insider attack scenarios suggest that during, or directly before the attack, the insider begins to behave abnormally. We introduce a method to detect abnormal behavior by profiling users. We utilize the k-means and kernel density estimation algorithms to learn a user’s normal behavior and establish normal user profiles based on behavioral data. We then compare user behavior against the normal profiles to identify abnormal patterns of behavior.