The aim of this dissertation is to examine the process of securitization of terrorism, to develop the role of the audience (public) at the individual level and subsequently to provide recommendations on an alternative way of fighting terrorism. In order to achieve this goal, the author uses socially constructivist securitization theory, critical terrorism studies and political psychology, namely cognitive and social psychology. Throughout the chapters, the securitization process of terrorism is explored; terrorism as a (to a certain extent) objective problem, further, from the point of view of critical terrorism studies, the security measures are assessed and public opinion is examined through public opinion polls. The author comes to the conclusion that public opinion is one of the key factors in implementing extensive security measures. Therefore, she further examines the factors that affect public opinion; the narrative, the role of the media, and ultimately the psychological processes influencing the perception of reality. It turns out that the narrative about terrorism and the media have their share in the public reaction to terrorism, but the role of the audience in the securitization process of terrorism is not fully explained and there are the psychological processes that illuminate it. Therefore, by running an experiment, the author examines the effect of three narratives about terrorism, based on psychological theories. It concludes that there is a potential for reducing the public's fears and thus the alternative fight against terrorism.

The violation of societal shared convictions is a phenomenon which can occur in different situations of daily living. Previous research investigated this phenomenon in various domains (e.g., morality and competence) separately while neglecting the similarities. This dissertation’s basic assumption is that violations of societal shared convictions in various domains lead to the same state, namely a legitimacy crisis, as the construct of legitimacy is closely related to social norms and values. A legitimacy crisis is an individual’s perception that his or her actions or characteristics are not or less appropriate as they are discrepant to the societal shared convictions in the given situation. Based on the general assumption that legitimacy crises go beyond existing theories on the violation of societal shared convictions, this work contributes to three general issues: First, it provides a theoretical integration into and continuation of overarching theoretical frameworks of legitimacy, discrepancy and threat. Second, it conducts an empirical examination of legitimacy crises throughout the two main domains of morality and competence, focusing especially on the mediating function of legitimacy crises between the discrepancy and subsequent consequences. Third, it contributes a theoretical development and empirical examination of emotional and behavioral consequences of legitimacy crises across the two main domains of morality and competence. To address these issues, this dissertation discusses the general meaning of legitimacy in the context of social and organizational psychology research and especially the different perspectives on legitimacy, thereby working out a deeper understanding of the self and legitimacy. Furthermore, this work demonstrates that experiencing legitimacy crises is threatening for one´s self as it followed by specific emotional and behavioral reactions. To empirically investigate the theoretical considerations, nine studies in various domains with different methods (scenarios, recall, face-to-face interactions and field studies) were conducted. The four studies in Chapter 4, four studies generally focus on the construct of legitimacy crises in the context of morality and competence, and examine the mediating function of a legitimacy crisis on the emotional and behavioral consequences. While participants in the first two studies worked on a scenario about a psychology intern in a hospital, participants in the last two studies dealt with unmoral behavior (in-basket exercise and a recall task about an unmoral behavior). Independent from the domain, all four studies of Chapter 4 provide evidence that legitimacy crises are judgments of a perceived violation of societal shared convictions. The results show the expected mediating function of legitimacy crises between the perception of the violation of societal shared convictions and moral emotions (guilt and shame). Whereas feelings of guilt led to an increase of moral behavior, feelings of shame decreased moral behavior. As an example for the moral domain, Chapter 5 takes a closer look on the role of bystanders in the context of social exclusion. Bystanders’ inactions violate the social norms of inclusion and equality. Until now, research on social exclusion has focused primarily on targets and perpetrators, demonstrating that both experience social exclusion situations as threatening. This chapter wants to expand this knowledge and improve the understanding of the psychological processes of bystanders to potentially facilitate interventions for social exclusion situations. The results of three studies with varying methods (recall and face-to-face interaction paradigm) strengthen the general findings of Chapter 4. Bystanders who evaluate their inaction as less appropriate report more feelings of shame and guilt which lead to more social defense reactions compared to targets. To extend the general findings on competence in Chapter 4, Chapter 6 exemplarily examines leaders who perceive that they are not able to meet the expectations of the leadership role in two field studies. The findings demonstrate that leaders, who perceived to be violating the societal expectations towards their role as leader, evaluated their actions as less appropriate thereby eliciting a higher extent of job insecurity that led to more silence behavior. Moreover, the results show that leader silence and follower silence are negatively related, especially when the leader is perceived as unjust. In line with the findings of Chapter 4 and 5, the construct of legitimacy crises is also a relevant mediator in the context of leadership. In general, the theoretical considerations and the empirical findings of this dissertation demonstrate the important role of the construct of legitimacy crises in various domains and emphasize its mediating function between the violation of societal shared convictions and the subsequent emotional and behavioral reactions. The findings provide theoretical and practical implications. To understand the underlying process of discrepancies with normative standards, the Self-Standards Model and the construct of legitimacy crises provide an important theoretical framework, which works independent from the specific domain. Understanding legitimacy crises provides starting points for the development of interventions for people experiencing legitimacy crises. / Die Verletzung von gesellschaftlich geteilten Überzeugungen ist ein Phänomen, welches in verschiedenen Situationen des täglichen Lebens auftreten kann. Die bisherige Forschung hat dieses Phänomen in unterschiedlichen Bereichen (bspw., Moral und Kompetenz) getrennt betrachtet und mögliche Gemeinsamkeiten vernachlässigt. Diese Dissertation geht davon aus, dass die Verletzung von gesellschaftlich geteilten Überzeugungen in unterschiedlichen Bereichen zu dem gleichen Zustand führt, einer Legitimitätskrise, da gerade das Konzept der Legitimität mit gesellschaftlichen Normen und Werten eng verknüpft ist. Eine Legitimitätskrise ist die Wahrnehmung eines Individuums, dass deren Handlungen oder Eigenschaften in Bezug zu gesellschaftlichen Überzeugungen in einer bestimmten Situation gar nicht oder wenig angemessen sind. Ausgehend von der generellen Annahme, dass Legitimitätskrisen über bestehende Theorien im Rahmen der Verletzung von gesellschaftlichen Überzeugungen hinausgehen, trägt diese Arbeit zu drei generellen Punkten bei: Erstens, eine theoretische Integration und Weiterführung von übergreifenden theoretischen Rahmenmodellen in Bereichen Legitimität, Diskrepanzen und Bedrohungen. Zweitens, eine empirische Untersuchung von Legitimitätskrisen in den beiden zentralen Bereichen Moral und Kompetenz. Drittens, theoretische Entwicklung und empirische Untersuchung von emotionalen und behavioralen Konsequenzen von Legitimitätskrisen in den beiden Bereichen Moral und Kompetenz. Zur Erreichung dieser Punkte wird im Rahmen der Dissertation zunächst die generelle Bedeutung von Legitimität im Kontext sozial und organisationspsychologischer Forschung diskutiert, besonders die verschiedenen Perspektiven von Legitimität. Dies dient vor allem der Herausarbeitung eines tieferen Verständnisses von Selbst und Legitimität. Des Weiteren geht diese Arbeit näher darauf ein, dass Legitimitätskrisen bedrohlich für das eigene Selbst sind und wie Menschen auf der emotionalen und behavioralen Ebene damit umgehen. Zur empirischen Untersuchung dieser theoretischen Überlegungen wurden neun Studien in unterschiedlichen Bereichen mit verschiedenen Methoden (Szenarien, Erinnerung, direkte Interaktionen und Feldstudien) durchgeführt. Kapitel 4 beschäftigt sich in vier Studien mit dem Konstrukt der Legitimitätskrise im Kontext von Moral und Kompetenz. Dabei wird auch die mediierende Funktion auf emotionale und behaviorale Konsequenzen näher untersucht. Während die Teilnehmer in den ersten beiden Studien an einem Szenario über ein Praktikum in einem Krankenhaus arbeiten, beschäftigen sich die Teilnehmer der letzten beiden Studien mit unmoralischen Verhaltensweisen (Postkorbübung und Erinnerungsaufgabe über unmoralisches Verhalten). Unabhängig vom Bereich legen alle vier Studien in Kapitel 4 nahe, dass Legitimitätskrisen Bewertungen einer wahrgenommenen Verletzung von gesellschaftlich geteilten Überzeugungen sind. Die Ergebnisse zeigen die mediierende Funktion von Legitimitätskrisen zwischen der wahrgenommenen Verletzung gesellschaftlich geteilter Überzeugungen und moralischen Emotionen (Schuld und Scham). Während Gefühle von Schuld zu einem Anstieg von moralischem Verhalten führen, reduzieren Gefühle von Scham moralisches Verhalten. Beispielhaft für den moralischen Bereich, beschäftigt sich Kapitel 5 näher mit der Rolle von Bystandern im Rahmen von Sozialem Ausschluss. Das Nichthandeln von Bystandern verletzt dabei soziale Normen von Inklusion und Gleichheit. Die bisherige Forschung hat sich hauptsächlich mit Opfern und Tätern auseinandergesetzt und zeigt, dass beide Situationen Sozialen Ausschlusses als bedrohlich empfinden. Dieses Kapitel möchte den bisherigen Wissensstand erweitern und die Erkenntnisse über die psychologischen Prozesse bei Bystandern verbessern um mögliche Interventionen daraus ableiten zu können. Die Ergebnisse von drei Studien mit ganz unterschiedlichen Methoden (Erinnerung und direkte Interkation) stärken die Befunde aus Kapitel 4. Im Vergleich zu Opfern bewerten Bystander ihr Nichthandeln als weniger angemessen, berichten mehr Scham und Schuld, was wiederum zu mehr sozialen Verteidigungsreaktionen führt. Kapitel 6 vertieft die generellen Erkenntnisse aus Kapitel 4 im Bereich Kompetenz, indem es sich im Rahmen von zwei Feldstudien exemplarisch mit Führungskräften beschäftigt, welche sich nicht in der Lage sehen, die an sie gestellten Anforderungen zu erfüllen. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass Führungskräfte, die eine Verletzung von gesellschaftlich geteilten Überzeugungen an sich wahrnehmen, ihre Handlungen als weniger angemessen bewerten, was zu einem höheren Ausmaß an Jobunsicherheit führt, dass wiederum Schweigeverhalten erhöht. Außerdem zeigt sich, dass Schweigeverhalten von Führungskräften und Mitarbeitern in einem negativen Zusammenhang steht, vor allem wenn die Führungskraft als ungerecht wahrgenommen wird. Wie in Kapitel 4 und 5 zeigt sich auch hier, dass das Konstrukt der Legitimitätskrisen als relevanter Mediator im Rahmen von Führung angesehen werden kann. Zusammenfassend lässt sich sagen, dass die theoretischen Überlegungen als auch empirischen Befunde dieser Dissertation zeigen, dass das Konstrukt der Legitimitätskrise in verschiedenen Bereichen eine wichtige Rolle spielt, vor allem die mediierende Funktion zwischen Verletzung gesellschaftlich geteilter Überzeugungen und dem unmittelbar nachfolgenden emotionalen und behavioralen Reaktionen. Aus den Ergebnissen lassen sich theoretische und praktische Implikationen ableiten. Um die zugrundeliegenden Prozesse von Diskrepanzen besser verstehen zu können, bietet das Self-Standards Model und das Konstrukt der Legitimitätskrise ein geeignetes Rahmenmodell, welches unabhängig von dem jeweiligen Bereich funktioniert. Des Weiteren liefern diese Erkenntnisse Ansatzpunkte um Interventionen für Menschen entwickeln zu können, deren Legitimitätswahrnehmung in eine Krise geraten ist.

In the last years we can observe an increasing number of security incidents varying in their focus, motives and success rate. Attacks are often conducted by very skilled organized groups with high knowledge base and they are increasing in their sophistication and efficiency. Because of those reasons information security is now one of the main fields of interest of IT experts. This thesis deals with Security information and Event Management technology and its usage for the detection of potentially harmful activity in a company's internal network. In the first chapter the elementary concepts of security are placed into the context of this thesis. Next chapter deals with security information and event management technology itself, its clear definition and describing the main functionality. The end of the theoretical part is dedicated to the author's view of the future and also to the problems concerning the implementation of SIEM solutions including return on investment calculation which has certain specifics in security field. Main benefit coming from this thesis is a clear description and creation of use cases aimed at the detecting suspicious activity in internal computer networks combined with their deployment in SIEM solution in real environment. The practical part of this thesis is dedicated to the configuration of the chosen device and its connection to the SIEM solution, and the assessment of usability of security events generated by the threat detecting device. Based on this assessment the use cases will be modelled and then deployed in the test environment. This thesis aims to bring on overall view into the security information and event management technology, starting with its definition and base functions. The primary goal of this thesis is use case designing for real time threat detection in a practical environment.

Malgré les avancées considérables dans l’analyse des preuves matérielles, et le développement ces dernières années de la police scientifique, les témoignages oculaires occupent encore aujourd’hui un rôle primordial dans les décisions de justice. Et pourtant, ces témoignages sont faillibles. En effet, de nombreux facteurs se trouvant au croisement de processus mnésiques et/ou cognitifs et de processus sociaux et/ou sociocognitifs, peuvent les impacter de façon irréversible. C’est dans ce contexte, et dans le but de mieux comprendre certaines variables à l’origine de leur fragilité, que nous avons réalisé les sept expérimentations présentées dans cette thèse.De façon plus précise, les trois premières études s’intéressaient à une technique d’audition efficace, appelée l’entretien cognitif. Notre objectif était alors de développer et d’évaluer, en laboratoire et sur le terrain, un protocole modifié d’entretien cognitif fondé sur le principe de multiplication des rappels libres. Toutefois, dans cette thèse, nous souhaitions adopter une approche plus dynamique et situationnelle de l’entretien cognitif que celle rencontrée jusqu’à présent dans la littérature. C’est pourquoi, dans une seconde partie, nous avons examiné l’efficacité de ce protocole en lien avec trois variables évaluatrices indissociables des situations d’auditions, et pouvant dans les faits impacter fortement et négativement la qualité des témoignages oculaires. Ces trois variables sont: (a) les scripts que partagent les individus à propos des évènements criminels, (b) les discussions entre témoins, et, (c) les stéréotypes associés aux témoins par le biais de leursappartenances groupales.Plusieurs résultats ont alors été montrés. Tout d’abord, nous avons confirmé l’efficacité d’une version modifiée d’entretien cognitif (ECM). Plus précisément, un protocole composé de deux rappels libres, incluant les consignes d’exhaustivité et de remise en contexte ainsi qu’une nouvelle technique destinée à favoriser le souvenir, la focalisation périphérique guidée, a permis d’améliorer, dans toutes nos études, la richesse du rappel des participants sans nuire à son exactitude. Son efficacité a d’ailleurs été montrée aussi bien en laboratoire que sur le terrain. De plus, ce protocole intègre les consignes cognitives les plus efficaces et omet les moins effectives. Parallèlement, nous avons confirmé l’impact néfaste des scripts et des discussions entre témoins sur les témoignages oculaires. Certains effets des stéréotypes liés à l’appartenance groupale du témoin ont aussi été suggérés. Enfin, concernant l’efficacité de l’entretien cognitif, et plus précisément de la versionmodifiée, certains effets délétères de ce protocole et des consignes qui le composent ont été observés en lien avec les trois variables évaluatrices considérées. Toutefois, plusieurs bénéfices intéressants ont également été révélés dans ce cadre.Ces résultats seront discutés au regard des données disponibles dans la littérature à ce jour. Des recommandations appliquées seront également émises. / Despite many advances in analyzing physical evidence, and the development these past years of the forensic police, eyewitnesses’ testimonies remains decisive in the decisions of justice. Nevertheless, these testimonies are fallible. Numerous factors, at the crossroad of memory and/or cognitive processes and of social and/or sociocognitive processes, can impact them in an irreversible manner. In this context, we realized the seven experimentations presented in this dissertation. The aim was to understand better some variables responsible for the fragility of eyewitnesses’ accounts.More precisely, the first three studies presented in the first part of this work were dealing with an effective technique for interviewing eyewitnesses, called the Cognitive Interview. Our purpose was to develop and evaluate, in the lab and in the field, a modified version of Cognitive Interview, based on the principle of multiplication of the free recalls. However, in this dissertation, we chose to adopt a more dynamic and situational approach that the one encountered in the literature until now. Therefore, in a second part, we examined the efficacy of this protocol in interaction with three estimator variables, inseparable from the context of hearing witnesses, and which can in the real life strongly and negatively impact the quality of their accounts. These variables are: (a) the scripts shared by individuals about criminal events, (b) the talk between witnesses, and, (c) the stereotypes associated with witnesses through the social groups they belong to.Several results were shown. First, we confirmed the efficacy of a modified version of the Cognitive Interview (MCI). More precisely, a protocol composed of two free recallattempts, composed of the report all and the context reinstatement instructions, as well as a new technique designed to enhance memories, the guided peripheral focus, increased in all the studies the richness of participants’ recalls without impairing their accuracy. Its efficacy was shown in the lab and in the field. Moreover, this protocol includes the most effective cognitive instructions and omits the less beneficial. Then, in the second part, we confirmed that the scripts and the talk among witnesses have a detrimental impact on eyewitnesses’ testimonies. Some effects of the stereotypes linked to the group membership of the witness were also suggested. Finally, concerning the efficacy of the Cognitive Interview, and more precisely the modified protocol, some negative effects were observed in interaction with the three estimator variables considered. However, some interesting benefits of this protocol and of the cognitive instructions it includes were also shown.These results will be discussed in regards with the literature available today. Some applied recommendations will also be emitted.

On January 3, 2020, Iranian major general Qasem Soleimani was killed through a targeted drone strike at the authorisation of the US President Donald Trump. This thesis examines if, and in that case how, the arguments presented by the Trump administration used to justify the killing of general Soleimani are in line with the principles of Just War theory. By conducting a case study, through a qualitative content analysis, analysing four official statements made by the Trump administration during a two months period after the killing, this thesis will examine the moral discourses in the arguments presented. Drawing on insights from studies regarding the justification of War on Terror, preemptive war, and targeted killings according to the Just War theory, lays the foundation for a deeper reasoning of the legality of the argumentation based on the principles of Just War. This thesis will show that in some aspects, the arguments presented by the Trump administration can be interpreted to be in accordance with one of the principles, but none of the statements satisfy the criteria in all of the principles. Therefore, the overall conclusion of this analysis is that the Trump administration has the intention of justifying the attack, but the arguments used are not rooted in Just War theory. Further, this thesis will also show an inconsistency over time in the arguments presented. The contribution from this study lays in the analysis of the arguments on the basis of the principles of Just War theory, not from the perspective of international law. The intention from this thesis is not to analyse if the attack itself can be seen as just according to Just War theory but looking at the argumentation presented by the Trump administration.

This research seeks to derive and examine a multidimensional definition of information security awareness, investigate its antecedents, and analyze its effects on compliance with organizational information security policies. The above research goals are tested through the theoretical lens of technology threat avoidance theory and protection motivation theory. Information security awareness is defined as a second-order construct composed of the elements of threat and coping appraisals supplemented by the responsibilities construct to account for organizational environment. The study is executed in two stages. First, the participants (employees of a municipality) are exposed to a series of phishing and spear-phishing messages to assess if there are any common characteristics shared by the phishing victims. The differences between the phished and the not phished group are assessed through multiple discriminant analysis. Second, the same individuals are asked to participate in a survey designed to examine their security awareness. The research model is tested using PLS-SEM approach. The results indicate that security awareness is in fact a second-order formative construct composed of six components. There are significant differences in security awareness levels between the victims of the phishing experiment and the employees who maintain compliance with security policies. The study extends the theory by proposing and validating a universal definition of security awareness. It provides practitioners with an instrument to examine awareness in a plethora of settings and design customized security training activities.

El texto completo de este trabajo no está disponible en el Repositorio Académico UPC por restricciones de la casa editorial donde ha sido publicado. / In this article, we propose a reference model to identify the maturity level of the cyber intelligence threat process. This proposal considers the dark web as an important source of cyber threats causing a latent risk that organizations do not consider in their cybersecurity strategies. The proposed model aims to increase the maturity level of the process through a set of proposed controls according to the information found on the dark web. The model consists of three phases: (1) Identification of information assets using cyber threat intelligence tools. (2) Diagnosis of the exposure of information assets. (3) Proposal of controls according to the proposed categories and criteria. The validation of the proposal was carried out in an insurance institution in Lima, Peru, with data obtained by the institution. The measurement was made with artifacts that allowed to obtain an initial value of the current panorama of the company. Preliminary results showed 196 emails and passwords exposed on the dark web of which one corresponded to the technology manager of the company under evaluation. With this identification, it was diagnosed that the institution was at a “Normal” maturity level, and from the implementation of the proposed controls, the “Advanced” level was reached. / Revisión por pares

Although the topic of international mediation has been debated frequently amongst academic scholars, most literature has failed to address the notion of threat perception. This thesis examines the impact of threat perceptions from ideational and material force on the prospects for successful international mediation. In this comparative case study, I argue that threat perception is an influential factor conditioning the road towards peace agreements, by examining one case of failure and one case of success in international mediation of interstate conflicts. The first case in the comparison consists of the conflict between Armenia-Azerbaijan in the disputed region of Nagorno-Karabakh, where the OSCE Minsk Group has conducted mediation efforts. The second case examined is the conflict between Israel-Egypt which predominately have been mediated by the US. A conflict which ending was marked by the Camp David Accords in 1978 and resulted in a peace treaty the year after. The analysis shows that threat perception is indeed a factor of importance for outcome in relation to international mediation. Compared to previous research largely focused on material factors, the result shows that ideational factors should be considered to the same extent and are influential in both cases. This contribution to the field of war studies and international mediation literature also reflects the interconnectivity between threat perceptions from ideational and material force. An insight which I argue is pivotal for the comprehension of why some interstate conflicts appear to be resistant to resolution.

This thesis deals with the processing map multicriteria decision risk analysis on the basis of on available data in accordance with Directive 2007/60/ES and the methodology of the Ministry of Environment of the Czech Republic in 2012 on the selected location in the river Dřevnice at kilometer 2,340 to 16,633.

La distinction de l’ami et de l’ennemi comme facteur déterminant du politique – théorie de Carl Schmitt – a été développée par son élève, traducteur et introducteur Julien Freund, qui précisa « l’essence du politique » par deux autres facteurs : les distinctions du commandant et du commandé, du public et du privé. Le moment de fondation ou de refondation du politique (le kairos grec) est la « situation exceptionnelle » dont la qualification est l’œuvre du souverain. Freund apporte à cette conception schmitienne deux éléments objectifs : la guerre civile et la guerre étrangère faisant de la crise politique la mise en danger de mort de la collectivité, soit la conjugaison du péril intérieur et de l’insécurité extérieure. Correspondent seules à cette définition la Grande Révolution et la Révolution nationale. Le retour en France de l’ennemi (non de la guerre) est la « reprise » (Kierkegaard : la chose du passé surgissant telle qu’en elle-même l’a changée la nouvelle situation) du conflit à la fois étranger et civil de 1954-1962, conflit qui amena la réforme de la loi fondamentale (référendum d’octobre 1958), la décision de la situation exceptionnelle (application de l’article 16, permettant l’incarnation du commandement pour la première fois depuis 1944) et l’installation du régime (référendum d’octobre 1962). L’assimilation de l’Epuration à la « Terreur jacobine » occulte la remise en vigueur des lois révolutionnaires par l’État français, des lois de la Restauration par le pouvoir gaullo-communiste. Tandis que les auteurs contre-révolutionnaires avaient décrit dans la Révolution une œuvre providentielle de régénération nationale, les théories politiques subversives d’illustres « révolutionnaires » et leur mise en pratique (par leurs eux-mêmes) contredisent l’action et le bilan du jacobinisme illibéral : patriotisme de Brissot, fédéralisme de Cloots, communisme de Babeuf. Une dialectique révolutionnaire-conservatrice (réaliste) rencontre donc en miroir une dialectique réactionnaire-progressiste, impolitique en ce sens que son but est le dépassement, l’anéantissement ou l’implosion d’une collectivité politique donnée, la Nation. Robespierre, sous cet angle, incarna donc la tendance conservatrice de la Révolution. La victoire inaugurale de l’oligarchie par un coup de force parlementaire (Thermidor) passe par la délégation du pouvoir souverain, de la députation vers l’armée (stratocratie). Au bout d’une génération, la monarchie de Juillet consacre l’alliance structurelle de l’Ordre et du Mouvement. C’est le coup d’État de 1851 qui ressuscite le suffrage universel ; puis le second Empire reviendra sur l’héritage libéral de 1789 au temporel (abolition des corporations, interdiction des coalitions) comme au spirituel (constitution civile du clergé) en dotant l’Église et en autorisant les syndicats (1864). S’institutionnalise après la guerre étrangère (franco-prussienne) puis civile (Commune) un « nouvel Ancien régime » (Pierre Leroux) dont la gauche constituera l’aile active ; la droite, l’aile passive. En 1939, le gouvernement décidant de la guerre contre l’avis du Parlement, ce qui restait de République est renversé de fait ; le congrès réuni à Vichy, par son vote du 10 juillet 1940, reconquiert paradoxalement la souveraineté en la déléguant. L’histoire du régime de Vichy doit donc être revue à cette lumière, comme celle du gaullisme (dissidence de la Tradition) et de la résistance communiste (dissidence de la Révolution) ; ces deux dernières forces, réunies à partir de 1941, reconstitueront le mouvement réactionnaire-progressiste. Les mémoires de la Révolution française et de la Révolution nationale sont battues en brèche sous les coups d’un libéralisme toujours plus hégémonique, altérant le Peuple, la Constitution, le politique lui-même. Le régime libéral renvoie dos à dos jacobinisme et maurrassisme dans le même enfer mémoriel. / The distinction of the friend and the enemy as the determining factor of politics – a theory of Carl Schmidt – has been developped by his pupil, translator and introducer Julien Freund who indicated besides two other factors of the "essence of politics" : the distinction of the commanding one and the commanded one and that of the public sphere and the private sphere. The act of fundation or refundation of politics (the greek kairos) is the ‘exceptional situation’ and its qualification is the sovereign’s task. Freund adds to this Schmittian approach two objective elements : civil war and foreign war changing the political crisis into the danger of death for the collectivity, that is the combination of the internal threat with that from abroad. The only events in the History of France that do correspond to this definition are the Great Revolution and the National Revolution. The enemy coming back in France (and not war coming back) is the ‘resumption’ (Kierkegaard : the thing from the past appearing as the situation changed it in itself) of the internal and external conflict of 1954-1962, a conflict that led to the reform of the fundamental law (referundum of October 1958), the decision to decree the exceptional situation (application of section 16 of the Constitution enabling the incarnation of the command for the first time since 1944) and the installation of the regime (referendum of October 1962). The assimilation of the épuration légale (French : “legal purge”) to the "Jacobin Terror" hides the reinstatement of revolutionary laws by the French State and that of the laws of the Bourbon Restoration by the Gaullo-communist power. While counterrevolutionary authors had described in the Revolution a providential work of national regeneration, the subversive political theories of illustrious "Revolutionaries" and their application (by themselves) contradict the action and the results of illiberal Jacobinism: Brissot’s patriotism, Cloots’ federalism, Babeuf’s communism. A revolutionary-conservative (realist) dialectic thus meets in mirror a reactionary-progressive dialectic which can only be impolitic in the sense that its goal is the overcoming, the annihilation or the implosion of a given political community, the Nation. Robespierre, from this angle, thus embodied the conservative tendency of the Revolution. The inaugural victory of the oligarchy by a parliamentary coup (Thermidor) involves the delegation of the sovereign power from deputyship to the army (stratocracy). At the end of a generation, the July monarchy consecrates the structural alliance of the Order and the Movement. It was the coup d'etat of 1851 that revived universal suffrage; the Second Empire was then to reconsider the liberal heritage of 1789 in the temporal field (abolition of fund, prohibition of coalitions) as well as in the spiritual field (civil constitution of the clergy) by endowing the Church and authorizing labor unions (1864). After the foreign (Franco-Prussian) and then civil (Commune) wars, a "new Ancien Regime" (Pierre Leroux) was institutionalised, with the left as active wing and the right as the passive wing. In 1939, as the government declared war against the opinion of Parliament, what remained of the Republic was overthrown de facto; the congress at Vichy, by its vote of July 10, 1940, paradoxically reconquered sovereignty by delegating it. The history of the Vichy regime must therefore be reviewed in this light, like that of Gaullism (dissent of Tradition) and communist resistance (dissent of the Revolution); these last two forces, united from 1941, would reconstitute the reactionary-progressive movement. The memories of the French Revolution and the National Revolution are undermined by the blows of an ever more hegemonic liberalism altering the People, the Constitution, politics itself. The liberal regime refers back to back Jacobinism and Maurrassism in the same memorial hell.