Magister Legum - LLM

Dans le contexte du pluralisme juridique et de l’inter-normativité croissante, la présente thèse démontre l’influence du droit international des changements climatiques sur la formation et le développement du droit de l’environnement de l’Union Européenne (UE) à travers les techniques, méthodes et règles d’intégration prévues aussi bien par le droit international que par le droit européen. Le droit européen de l’environnement comporte désormais les concepts (économie verte, développement durable, marché de carbone...) et principes (responsabilité commune mais différenciée, précaution, prévention, responsabilité, etc.) du droit international des changements climatiques. Ainsi, l’européanisation et la constitutionnalisation du droit international des changements climatiques ont eu pour conséquence son insertion dans le système juridique des Etats membres. En effet, en vertu de ses engagements internationaux en matière de lutte contre le réchauffement global, l’UE a adopté des instruments juridiquement contraignants qui impactent les systèmes juridiques nationaux et s’est engagée sur le Kyoto II. Les dynamiques, les controverses, les heurs et les malheurs de la politique et des négociations climatiques multilatérales ont suscité la mise en place d’une diplomatique climatique européenne bien structurée et d’une politique d’économie verte qui ne manquent pas de se heurter à des défis de la coopération internationale, de l’action collective internationale, de production et de consommation équitables des biens publics mondiaux, ainsi qu’à des obstacles techniques, technologiques, institutionnels, humains, économiques, financiers, souverainistes, sociaux, énergétiques, écologiques et transformationnels. Sur le fondement de l’effet obligatoire et de la force exécutoire des dispositions du droit international du climat et du droit primaire européen, le régime international climatique produit des effets juridiques à l’intérieur des Etats membres et même à l’égard des Etats tiers traitant avec l’organisation européenne. En effet, en raison de la supranationalité, de l’effet direct et de la primauté du droit européen, les règles juridiques internationales relatives à la lutte contre les changements climatiques, transposées et intégrées, ont force obligatoire dans les ordres juridiques nationaux où elles requièrent une application uniforme. Il s’ensuit que le droit de l’UE, de par son caractère supranational et ses mécanismes de contrôle et de sanction, notamment juridictionnels, est devenu l’instrument d’effectivité et d’efficacité du droit conventionnel international du climat. De ce fait, les défaillances de ce droit relatives à l’absence d’une juridiction obligatoire, au non-respect par les Etats de leurs engagements internationaux et à la faiblesse du contrôle international sont largement compensées par l’efficacité du système juridique européen et national. / In the legal pluralism and increasing inter-normativity context, this thesis demonstrates the influence of international climate change law on the formation and development of European Union (EU) environmental law through the techniques, methods and rules of integration provided for by international law as well as by European law. European environmental law now includes the concepts (green economy, sustainable development, carbon market ...) and principles (common but differentiated responsibility, precaution, prevention, responsibility, etc.) of the climate change international Law. Thus, the Europeanisation and constitutionalisation of international climate change law resulted in its insertion into the legal system of member states. Indeed, by virtue of its international commitments to combat global warming, the EU has adopted legally binding instruments that impact national legal systems and is committed to Kyoto II. The dynamics, controversies, clashes and the woes of the multilateral climate policy and negotiations have led to the establishment of a well-structured European climate diplomacy and a green economy policy that do not fail to come up against challenges of international cooperation, international collective action, global public goods equitable production and consumption, as well as technical,technological, institutional, human, economic, financial, sovereignist, social, energy, and ecological and transformational barriers.On the basis of the binding effect and enforceability of the provisions of international climate law and European primary law, the international climate regime produces legal effects within the member states and even towards third states dealing with the European organization. Indeed, because of supranationality, direct effect and the primacy of European law, the international legal rules relating to the fight against climate change, transposed and integrated, are binding in the national legal orders where they require a uniform application. As a consequence, the EU law, by virtue of its supranational character and its control and sanction mechanisms, including jurisdictional ones, has become the instrument of effectiveness and efficiency of international conventional climate law. As a result, the shortcomings of this right relating to the absence of compulsory jurisdiction, the non-compliance by States with their international commitments and the weakness of international control are largely offset by the effectiveness of the European and national legal system.

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The apparel and footwear industry’s contribution to global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is one of the fifth largest per industry, equal to that of livestock, after electricity and heat, oil and gas, agriculture, and transportation (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2017). For industry-wide emissions reduction, investing in renewable energy and energy efficiency programs across highest impacting life cycle phases offer the most effective solution. However, identifying the highest impacting life cycles phases shows varied results depending on the particular type of business model under examination. This paper responds to the lack of existing data and empirical research on how to accurately measure, report and reduce carbon emissions across the highly complex and globally interconnected apparel value chain. This is done through a single case study investigation of an Icelandic fashion brand. A hybrid approach of a standard Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and the Sustainable Global Value Chain (SGVC) functions to produce a Hotspot Identification Tool (HIT) to establish a holistic portrayal of business operations in relation to emission impacts and level of controllability across Scopes. The conceptual analysis and qualitative results identify the most relevant emission hotspots to lie within the company’s privately owned manufacturing facilities, as well as the procurement phase, due to its direct connection with and influence on material production, user phase, and end-of-life. The main obstacle in this pursuit is identified as restriction of resources in terms of time, capital and expertise. It is suggested that this be overcome by joining a Multi-Stakeholder Initiative where resources and expertise is pooled in a pre-competitive manner to reach common objectives. The investigation further suggests a need for global fashion brands to leverage their influential position on down- and upstream activities across the value chain, i.e. with their supply chain partners and consumers. I argue that fashion brands play an integral role in supporting local efforts to build a decarbonisation pathway towards climate neutral economies on a global scale.

This dissertation focuses on public diplomacy efforts targeted at persuading other countries to strengthen their domestic and international climate change policies. While previous research on climate diplomacy has addressed the global negotiations extensively, the role of embassies and the interplay between diplomats, their partners and the instruments and storylines they employ, has so far not received the scholarly attention it deserves. This is despite the fact that such behind-the-scenes outreach is one of the most promising tools available to engage other states. The dissertation aims to fill this literature gap by examining climate public diplomacy conducted by embassies and consulates of four EU states: the UK, Germany, Sweden and Denmark. The European Union, and these states in particular, were chosen because they have sought to portray themselves as leaders in tackling climate change while undertaking extensive climate diplomacy. The United States and China were chosen as target states since they have been the main focus of EU climate diplomacy, due to their position as the two largest aggregate contributors to climate change. The dissertation addresses public diplomacy in the field of climate change applied to both the federal/national and subnational levels of governance of these states. The main research question tackled by this dissertation is: What role do embassies and consulates play in climate diplomacy, and how effective is this diplomacy? In answering this, the research focuses on identifying environmental discourses and framings of climate change employed by embassies/consulates for different audiences, and assesses the impact of these frames. A central finding was a strong trade and growth orientation of climate diplomacy. The diplomatic network identified industry, especially fossil-fuel intensive businesses, as allies. Some companies that were embassy partners supported climate denial behind the scenes.

Magister Legum - LLM

In years long negotiations on the new global climate change regime, financial support provided for adaptation and mitigation in developing countries have been one of the most contentious issues. Billions dollars are in questions annually, disbursed both by private investments, as well as substantially via public funds. The fundamental question resonating in the negotiations and elsewhere though is the issue of efficient delivery. Given the scale of resources, which should be mobilized and disbursed, given the current experience with inefficiencies in ODA, given the fact that existing climate change funds are now disbursing millions but not billions, the efficiency is really the key for success of future climate regime. Moreover, efficient delivery is a pre-condition for "preventing dangerous interference with climate change", which is the ultimate goal of climate change policy enshrined in the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change envisages. It is a widespread belief that inefficiency in disbursing public funds remains at the recipient's side. This paper tries to approach the efficiency question at the case of the Global Environment Facility, the Kyoto Protocol Adaptation Fund and the World Bank Climate Investment Funds. It asks the question whether the existing funding mechanisms in climate change are set up optimally in order to disburse funds efficiently. When looking at their internal policies and guidelines, it focuses on the four leading questions -- how can funds be accessed, who decides, who and how implements and how are funds held accountable. It finds that there are major differences between the tree funds in how and by whom are priorities and objectives decided, what are the fund's requirements on recipients, and how does the fund control the efficiency of its spending. This paper brings an in-depth analysis of weak and strong policies in existing climate change funds with regard to efficient delivery.

Carbon dioxide from biogas production is currently considered to be without value and isbecause of this released into the atmosphere in the biogas upgrading process. The residualgas is a potential carbon source and can create value in the biogas manufacturing process.By finding a suitable value-creating process that utilizes carbon dioxide, it can be possibleto provide both economic and environmental incentives for companies to develop theiroperations. This project explored the possibility to create value from this CO2. Through anevaluation of the technical maturity of CCU technologies, a recommendation could be givenat the end of the project. An analysis of technical barriers, such as pollutants in the gas, aswell as barriers in the form of competence and corporate culture were examined in orderto provide a reasoned recommendation. The project mapped which value-creating systemswould be suitable for biogas producers in a Swedish context. This included established methaneand carbon dioxide upgrading techniques currently in use and suitable CCU techniquesthat can interact with the selected upgrading processes and serve as value creators. Based onthis survey, it was then possible to identify common, critical variables for these systems. Thereafter,a recommendation of an appropriate CCU technology could be given depending onthe CO2 composition produced. One conclusion from the study was that carbon dioxide concentrationsfrom the residual gas was often high (approx. 97-98 %) and did not contain anycorrosive or toxic components, and that this largely depends on how the digestion reactor ishandled in the production process. Thus, questions were raised about what the actual limitationsof the CCU are, as they did not seem to be technical. CCU techniques that proved to beof particular interest were pH regulation of sewage plants, CO2 as a nutrient substrate for thecultivation of microalgae, and manufacturing of dry-ice for refrigerated transports. All of thesetechnologies currently have a sufficiently high degree of technical maturity to be installedalready today. Other CCU techniques, such as "’Power to gas”, require a high CO2 concentrationand were discarded as the literature review did not suggest the economic potential forthem as they require additional CO2 upgrading steps. Instead, CCU techniques were chosenthat could be implemented directly with the existing CO2 quality. Furthermore, it was concludedthat one reason why CCU technologies have not been widely implemented is internalbarriers between distributors and manufacturers (or users) of CCU technologies. Thus, theuse of carbon dioxide from biogas production and implementation of CCU technologies canbe promoted by eliminating barriers in companies, such as a lack of both knowledge andfinancial incentives. / Koldioxid från biogasproduktion betraktas i dagsläget som utan värde och släpps ut i atmosfärenvid uppgradering av biogas. Restgasen är en potentiell kolkälla och kan vara värdeskapandeför biogasprocessen. Genom att finna en lämplig värdeskapande process som utnyttjarkoldioxid går det att ge både ekonomiska och miljömässiga incitament till företag att utvecklasin verksamhet. I detta projekt undersöktes möjligheten att skapa värde av denna CO2.Genom en utvärdering av den tekniska mognadsgraden hos CCU-tekniker kunde en rekommendationges vid projektets slut. En analys av tekniska hinder, såsom föroreningar i gassammansättningen,såväl som hinder i form av kompetens och företagskultur undersöktes för attkunna ge en motiverad rekommendation. I projektet kartlades vilka värdeskapande systemsom skulle passa för biogasproducenter i en svensk kontext. Detta inkluderade etableradeuppgraderingstekniker för metan- och koldioxid som används i dagsläget. I projektet undersöktesäven lämpliga CCU-tekniker som kan samverka med de valda uppgraderingsprocessernaoch och agera värdeskapande. Utifrån denna kartläggning kunde det sedan anges vilkagemensamma, kritiska variabler som finns för dessa system. Därefter kunde en rekommendationav lämplig CCU-teknik ges beroende på den producerade CO2 sammansättningen. Enslutsats i projektet var att koldioxid från restgasen ofta var av hög koncentration (ca. 97-98 %)och ej innehöll några korrosiva eller toxiska komponenter, och att detta till stor del beror påhur rötkammaren är hanterad i produktionsprocessen. Således väcktes frågor kring vilka defaktiska begränsningarna för CCU är, då de inte torde vara tekniska. CCU-tekniker som visadesig vara av särskilt intresse var pH-reglering av avloppsverk, CO2 som näringssubstratför odling av mikroalger, samt tillverkning av kolsyreis för kyltransporter. Samtliga dessatekniker har tillräckligt hög teknisk mognadsgrad för att kunna installeras i dagsläget. AndraCCU-tekniker, såsom ”Power to gas”, kräver en hög CO2-koncentration och avfärdades dålitteraturstudien inte talade för den ekonomiska potentialen i dessa eftersom de kräver ytterligareuppgraderingssteg för CO2. Således valdes istället CCU-tekniker som skulle gå attimplementera direkt med den befintliga CO2 kvalitén. Vidare drogs slutsatsen att en anledningtill att CCU-tekniker inte har blivit vida implementerade till stor del är interna hindermellan distributörer och tillverkare (eller utnyttjare) av CCU-tekniker. Således kan användandetav koldioxid från biogasproduktion och implementering av CCU-tekniker främjasgenom att eliminera hinder hos företag. I projektet yttrade sig detta som bristande ekonomiskaincitament och okunskap. Ett ökat användande av CCU-tekniker kan också uppnås genomatt införa lagar och regler som begränsar användandet av föråldrade tekniker som drivs avfossila bränslen, och som kan ersättas av klimatvänliga CCU-tekniker.

由於氣候變遷對全球帶來不可回復的危害，並成為影響國家安全的重要因素之一，聯合國自1988年起成立「政府間氣候變遷專門委員會」並啟動氣候治理談判，陸續於1992年及1997年通過《聯合國氣候變遷綱要公約》與《京都議定書》兩項協議，是現今全球應對此議題主要的兩項機制，透過每年召開締約方會議的方式進行協商，促進各締約方達成共識，提升全球節能減排的執行成效。 美國與中國的溫室氣體排放量在全球排名前二名，是已開發國家與開發中國家中具影響力的大國，故對氣候治理的立場與政策，成為影響全球節能減排成效的關鍵。然而由於氣候變遷議題涉及政治、經濟及安全利益，因此兩國對聯合國氣候治理機制所規範的「共同但有區別的責任原則」與減排份額規範的遵守，有各自的利益考量，在應對氣候變遷議題上，有衝突與摩擦，也有合作與實踐。 在聯合國所主導的氣候變遷治理機制中，美國與中國呈現競爭關係，但若跳脫此一機制，兩國反而能運用雙邊的交流協商，例如高層會談、簽署協議及戰略與經濟對話等平臺，進行雙邊合作達到自主的節能減排目標。從多邊的聯合國氣候談判機制與雙邊的交流分析，未來美中在應對氣候變遷議題上，仍將是既競爭又合作的關係。如果美國與中國能將現有積極進行雙邊合作立場推進到多邊的國際談判，減少已開發國家與開發中國家對氣候治理立場的分歧，那麼將能在國際氣候談判機制中發揮領導作用，促進新氣候協議的達成，對全球應對氣候變遷有極大的助益。 / Global climate change which has caused irreversible harm and become one of the important factors that affect international security, the United Nations set up Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change （IPCC） in 1988 has held talks since then. After that United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change（UNFCCC）and Kyoto Protocol（KP）were passed in 1992 and 1997 respectively, which are the world’s two main mechanisms to promote and enhance the implementation of effective emission reduction. The United States and China’s greenhouse gas emissions are the top two in the world and represent developed countries and developing countries. Their attitudes and policies of climate governance have become the key to the effective reduction in global greenhouse gas emissions. However, due to climate change issues related to political, economic and security interests, diffefent views on “common but differentiated responsibilities” and “responsibilities for emission reductions” give rise to both conflict and cooperation between the two countries. In the United Nations-led climate change governance mechanisms, the United States holds a competitive relationship with China. But outside the mechanisms, their bilateral consultations, such as high-level talks, agreements and U.S.-China Strategic and Economic Dialogue （S&ED） help them achieve reduction targets. In the future, the U.S.-China relations on the climate change issue will continue to be both competitive and cooperative. If they can modify their stances through climate governance, it will be able to play a leadership role in international climate negotiations and promote the new climate agreement to solve global climate change issues effectvely.