abstract: Emotion regulation repertoire, or the number of emotion regulation strategies one is able to employ when needed, is an important element of emotion regulation flexibility. Emotion regulation flexibility, the ability to regulate in accordance with changing situational contexts and demands, is predictive of emotion regulation success. Currently, little is known about emotion regulation repertoire and its association with emotional health and well-being. In particular, more can be learned about how the different strategies in one’s repertoire interact, and which strategies show stronger relationships with mental health. The current study aimed to assess the relationship of different emotion regulation strategies to mental health, including their individual and combined influence. In addition, the interaction between the use of specific emotion regulation strategies and emotion regulation flexibility with respect to mental health was examined. I hypothesized (1a) reappraisal and (1b) acceptance, two strategies previously associated with positive psychological outcomes, would be significant predictors of mental health, and (2) better flexibility would predict better mental health. In addition, I hypothesized that (3) strategies often found to be maladaptive (suppression, distraction, rumination, and experiential avoidance) would have an inverse relationship with mental health. Finally, (4) maladaptive strategies would be associated with worse mental health for those lower in flexibility. These hypotheses were tested through a questionnaire as part of a larger in-lab study. Results revealed that reappraisal and rumination were the strongest predictors of mental health. Emotion regulation flexibility did not predict mental health or moderate the relationship between individual emotion regulation strategies and mental health. Results from this study suggest some emotion regulation strategies are stronger predictors of mental health than others. This will guide future research on specific emotion regulation strategies in a repertoire as well as their combined effect on mental health. Creating a clearer picture of how different strategies interact and influence mental health will also be vital for clinical interventions. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Psychology 2018

Dans le vieillissement « sain », la préférence pour les stimuli positifs augmente par rapport aux stimuli négatifs. Ce phénomène est appelé « effet de positivité » et peut être observé au niveau comportemental et cérébral. L'objectif principal de cette thèse a été de caractériser les effets de l'âge sur les traitements émotionnels afin d'améliorer notre compréhension des effets de positivité. L'objectif sous-jacent a été d'évaluer dans quelles conditions ces effets peuvent conduire à une plus grande vulnérabilité des personnes âgées face à des situations menaçantes. Une première étude en électroencéphalographie a révélé que l'engagement attentionnel pour des scènes naturelles négatives diminue avec l'âge quel que soit leur niveau d'activation dans une tâche de catégorisation affective. A l'inverse, ce dernier reste inchangé pour les situations positives, conduisant à une réduction des biais de négativité. Une deuxième étude en électroencéphalographie, dont le paradigme était similaire à la première étude, a mis en évidence que les biais de négativité restent préservés avec l'âge lorsque l'évaluation des scènes s'effectue sur la dimension de « tendance à l'action ». Une troisième étude révèle que l'attention volontaire sur les situations d'intérêt des personnes âgées (positives) et sur les processus d'évaluation modulés par l'âge est nécessaire à l'émergence des effets de positivité. Parallèlement à ces travaux, une méthodologie innovante est proposée pour la classification d'états émotionnels des personnes jeunes et âgées sur la base de leurs signaux électroencéphalographiques. Nous avons obtenu des résultats encourageants qui suggèrent la possibilité cette méthode pour implémenter des interfaces cerveau-machine pour protéger les personnes âgées d'une éventuelle vulnérabilité en raison des effets de positivité. L'ensemble de ces travaux suggèrent que les effets de positivité sont les conséquences de changements sur le plan motivationnel de l'individu âgé, touchant principalement les processus d'évaluation émotionnel. La personne âgée régulerait ses émotions et diminuerait l'impact des émotions négatives lorsque d'autres motivations plus prioritaires sont absentes. / With aging, the preference for positive stimuli increases compared to negative stimuli. This is called “positivity effect” and it may be observed in both behavior and brain activity. The main goal of this work was to characterized age effects on emotional processing to improve our understood of this positivity effect. The second goal was to evaluate in which conditions these effects could make older people more vulnerable when they are confronted to threatening situations. A first EEG study revealed that the attentional engagement decreased with age for negative stimuli, regardless of their activation level, in an affective categorization task. Conversely, the processing of positive stimuli was preserved with age and, consequently, a reduction of the negativity bias was observed. In a second EEG study, using a similar paradigm to study 1 with the exception of the task which was an “action tendency task”, we observed a preservation of the negativity bias. A third study revealed that the voluntary attention on interest situations for aged adults (positive) and on appraisal process modulated with age was requisite to observe positivity effects. Parallel to this work, a new method was proposed to recognize and classify emotional states based on EEG signals. We obtained encouraging results which suggest the possibility to use this method to elaborate brain-computer interfaces to protect old people against a potential vulnerability due to positivity effect. Taken together, these results demonstrate that positivity effect is due to motivational shifts with age. Older people would be motivated to increase their well-being and would regulate their emotions by reducing the impact of negative stimuli, provided no other more important motivations are absent.

Ce travail de recherche s'inscrit en sciences de l'information et de la communication et s'intéresse à l'émotion dans la recherche d'information à travers l'exemple des forums de santé. Le succès de ces dispositifs résulte d'une motivation informationnelle et émotionnelle des participants qui peuvent accéder à des témoignages, des informations ponctuelles ou encore des informations médicales filtrées par le vécu du malade (ou du proche de malade) qui s'exprime. Les messages sont donc souvent empreints d'émotion. La problématique s'attache aux évolutions de l'activité d'information et notamment au rôle que peuvent jouer les marqueurs d'émotion dans la structuration des informations mais également lors de leur évaluation. Une première analyse vise à mettre en évidence l'organisation des messages et des indices d'émotion grâce à une analyse de corpus (de fils de discussion provenant de différents forums de santé). Une seconde enquête s'attache à l'analyse de données recueillies pendant une phase d'entretiens et d'expérimentations sur l'utilisation des forums de santé et sur la manière dont les participants évaluent les informations. Les résultats montrent que les informations médicales sont très présentes et majoritairement entremêlées d'indices d'émotion de peur. Toutefois, la joie est l'émotion la plus présente dans l'ensemble du corpus. Enfin, si les marqueurs d'émotion sont des critères d'évaluation, il apparaît que les informations médicales sont également des indices d'évaluation et non les informations évaluées. / This thesis has been carried out in the field of information and communication sciences and focuses on emotion in information retrieval in health fora. The success of these systems results from an informational and emotional motivation from the participants who can access testimonials, punctual information or medical information filtered through the experience of the patients who are writing. The messages often have emotional content. This thesis focuses on developments in information activities and especially on the role that emotional has in the structuring and evaluation of information. The aim of the first analysis is to highlight the organization of messages and their emotional content through a corpus analysis (from different threads of different French-language health fora). A second study focuses on the analysis of data collected during some interviews regarding the use of health fora and the way in which participants evaluate information. The results show that medical information is very present and mostly interspersed with emotion of fear. However, the joy is the emotion mostly present in all the collected corpus. Finally, if the evaluation criteria markers are emotion, it appears that medical information are also evaluation criteria and not the information evaluated.

Cette recherche ancrée dans la réalité subjective de sujets tout venant, est une exploration des réactions émotionnelles en situation d’incertitude, dans le contexte du phénomène d’intolérance à l’incertitude. Deux contributions qui seront complémentaires l’une de l’autre, vont être présentées afin d’en proposer une modélisation. La première, quantitative, selon l’éclairage apporté par les modèles cognitifs de l’émotion, les modèles multiniveaux et dimensionnels et à l’aide de questionnaires traités par des analyses statistiques, a mis en évidence le rôle de l’attachement, de la régulation émotionnelle et de l’intensité affective dans le mode de fonctionnement émotionnel des sujets intolérants à l’incertitude.La seconde contribution, qualitative, à partir d’entretiens semi-directifs, dans une approche fonctionnelle et relationnelle des émotions, dans une première analyse sémio-pragmatique nous a amenée à proposer une modélisation dans laquelle nous observons deux voies : l’une qui semble plus couteuse pour le sujet intolérant à l’incertitude avec des manifestations somatiques, des difficultés à prendre des décisions, l’autre plus courte, permettant une maîtrise de la situation, par un traitement cognitif dans une recherche active de solution, ou par une acceptation des évènements, dans une certaine mise à distance. Une seconde analyse des entretiens à l’aide du logiciel Tropes, a permis de montrer les différences de modes d’adaptations en situation d’incertitude, entre les sujets intolérants vs tolérants et notamment le rôle du stress. Nous avons pu montrer que le stress semble occuper une place d’actant dans la problématique du sujet intolérant. / This research, anchored in the subjective reality of a random sample of individuals, is an exploration of emotional reactions in situations of uncertainty, in the context of the phenomenon of intolerance to uncertainty. Two contributions which will be complementary to each other, will be presented in order to propose a model. The first, quantitative, was founded on multi-level and dimensional cognitive models of emotion, and used data from questionnaires. The statistical analyses of the results highlighted the role of attachment, emotional regulation and emotional intensity in the emotional functioning of subjects intolerant of uncertainty.The second qualitative contribution was based on semi-directive interviews, in a functional and relational approach to emotions. A first semio-pragmatic analysis led us to propose a model in which we observe two paths: one that seems more emotionally costly for those intolerant to uncertainty, leading to physical symptoms and difficulties to make decisions, the other shorter, allowing more control over the situation, through cognitive procesing in an active search for solutions, or by the acceptance of events, which creates a distancing of the individual from the situation. A second analysis of the interviews using the Tropes software package, showed the differences in subjects’ adjustement styles in situations of uncertainty, between intolerant vs tolerant subjects and notably the role of stress. We were able to show that stress seems to occupy a place of actant in the problematic of the intolerant subject.

One thing that may affect our decision making is emotions, and emotions are something we can regulate, this is referred to as emotion regulation. the use of emotion regulation strategies influence our decision making how this process out at the neural level The findings within this will suggest that the emotion regulation strategy reappraisal, compared to suppression, our decision making At the neural level, findings within this will indicate that neural changes may occur when individuals regulate their emotions in relation to making decisions. For instance, decreased activity within the striatum was associated with making less risky decisions when using the emotion regulation strategy reappraisal. On the other hand, the ventromedial prefrontal cortex may be important in mediating the neural systems of emotional states and working memory in order to enable decision making. This will also cover some prominent theories of emotion and decision making. Emotion regulation, as well as strategies for emotion regulation, will be explained.

L’objectif de cette thèse était de fournir des recommandations aux professionnels de la justice pour recueillir la parole des adolescents, population de témoin peu étudiée en laboratoire. Pour cela, cinq études ont été conduites. Les deux premières avaient pour objectif de dresser un état des lieux des pratiques des enquêteurs français. Nous avons observé une spécificité des adolescents, notamment en ce qui concerne le recours aux suggestions d’informations. Celles-ci étaient plus fréquemment faites lorsque l’adolescent venait de développer un propos, ce qui n’était pas le cas avec des mineurs plus jeunes. Cela pourrait signifier des objectifs d’audition différents selon l’âge du mineur (Étude 1). Pourtant, les recommandations internationales déconseillent fortement l’usage des suggestions en raison des biais mémoriels qu’elles peuvent entrainer immédiatement comme de manière différée. Ensuite, nous avons montré que les adolescents sont les plus représentés parmi les mineurs témoins et/ou victimes dans les affaires françaises et qu’ils sont généralement perçus comme menteurs et pudiques par les enquêteurs (Étude 2). Une étude conduite avec des gendarmes formés aux techniques de recueil de la parole des mineurs témoins (vs. non formés ; Étude 3) a montré que ces utilisations des questions suggestives seraient dues à une croyance des enquêteurs selon laquelle les suggestions pouvaient aider le mineur à se souvenir et à rappeler des informations, mais aussi (et surtout) permettre à l’enquête d’avancer. Ceci était d’autant plus vrai pour les gendarmes non formés. Pour répondre à ces pratiques inappropriées, mais aussi aux besoins des enquêteurs, nous nous sommes intéressés à deux versions modifiées de l’entretien cognitif (ECM). En effet, ce protocole d’audition est basé sur un questionnement ouvert (plutôt que fermé ou suggestif), et propose des stratégies de récupération efficaces. En favorisant la récupération en mémoire et le rappel des informations, il pourrait alors optimiser leur fiabilité, en vue de les exploiter lors de l’enquête judiciaire. Pour cela, nous avons testé la mnémotechnique du Séquençage (Étude 4), qui a montré ses bénéfices. Nous avons en effet observé une hausse du rappel des informations correctes (vs. entretien structuré ; ES). Toutefois, celle-ci s’accompagnait d’une hausse des erreurs. Un résultat similaire a été observé en testant une version raccourcie de l’ECM pour des événements répétés dans le temps (vs. événement unique ; Étude 5). De plus, cette étude a mis en avant une hausse des affabulations avec l’ECM (comparativement à un ES, et indépendamment de la fréquence de l’événement), mais aussi des confusions entre les différents événements visionnés par une partie des adolescents. Ces augmentations des informations erronées n’entrainaient cependant, dans aucune des deux études, de chute du taux d’exactitude. Ces résultats seront discutés au regard de la littérature scientifique, et des recommandations appliquées seront formulées afin d’aider les enquêteurs à conduire au mieux leurs auditions d’adolescents témoins et/ou victimes. / The goal of this thesis was to provide recommendations to any practitioner involved in the justice system to interview adolescent witnesses and/or victims, a population little studied in laboratory analogue contexts. To do so, five studies were conducted. The first two studies were aimed at establishing an inventory of the young French investigators’ witness interview practices. We observed that adolescents are a specific population, in particular regarding the use of suggestive questions. This type of questions increased right after the adolescents had just developed a statement, which was not the case with younger children. This result might reveal that, during investigative interviews with children and adolescents, the investigators have different aims depending on the age of the young witness (Study 1). However, international recommendations strongly discourage the use of suggestions because of immediate and delayed memory biases that may occur. Secondly, we have shown that adolescents represent most of the under legal age witnesses and/or victims in French cases, and that investigators generally perceived them as liars and as easily ashamed (Study 2). A study conducted with military police officers who previously had training in the use of structured interview techniques (vs. untrained officers; Study 3) showed that their use of suggestive questions were related to the belief that suggestive prompts could help the young witness and/or victim retrieve and recall information, but also (and most importantly) allow the investigation to move forward. This was especially observed with untrained military police officers. To deal with these inappropriate practices, we investigated the efficiency of two modified versions of the cognitive interview (MCI). This interview protocol is based on an open (rather than closed or suggestive) questioning style, and proposes effective retrieval strategies. Relying on techniques that promote memory retrieval and recall of information, it could then enhance the adolescents’ statements’ reliability, for these to be used during the investigation. We therefore tested a mnemonic called ‘guided peripheral focus’ (Study 4), which showed its benefits. Indeed, we observed an increase in the recall of correct information (vs. structured interview; SI). However, this was accompanied by an increase in errors. A similar pattern was observed with a shortened version of the MCI (vs. SI) used for repeated events (vs. single event; Study 5). In addition, this last study showed an increase in confabulations with the MCI (compared to a SI, and irrespective of the frequency of the event), but also in confusions between the different events experienced by some of the adolescents. However, these increases in erroneous details did not lead to a drop in the accuracy rate in either study. The results of the five studies will be discussed in regards with the scientific literature, and recommendations to help justice practitioners conduct their adolescent witness and/or victim interviews as appropriately as possible will be provided

Background: Childhood sexual abuse (CSA) has the potential to compromise the socioemotional development of the victim resulting in an increased vulnerability to difficulties regulating emotions and one’s sense of self. Emotion is thought to play a key part in a number of psychological disorders which CSA survivors are at increased risk of developing. A better understanding of the basic emotions experienced in this population and emotion regulation will inform current treatment. Aims: This research aimed to develop a better understanding of the emotions experienced by survivors of CSA and the relationship between “implicit” and explicit emotions and psychopathology. Method: Two empirical studies were conducted. Study 1 employed a cross-sectional consecutive case series design involving 109 survivors of CSA. Participants completed a set of measures relating to basic emotions, emotion regulation and symptoms. Exploratory factor analyses were conducted on the Basic Emotions scale (BES). Regression analyses were used to explore the relationship between emotions experienced, emotion regulation strategies and psychological symptoms. Study 2 examined basic emotions, “implicit disgust self-concept” and psychopathology in a population of CSA survivors (n=26) and a group of individuals currently receiving psychological therapy who reported that they had not experienced childhood trauma (n=25). Participants completed self-report measures pertaining to emotion, emotion regulation, symptoms and cognitive fusion. Participants also completed an implicit association test. Results: Exploratory factor analyses supported the structure of three versions of the BESWeekly, General, and Coping in a sample of survivors of childhood sexual abuse. In all three versions of the scale, disgust explained the largest proportion of variance. The basic emotions of sadness, fear and disgust as well as external dysfunctional coping strategies appear to predict PTSD symptomatology in this sample. The results of Study 2 also support the finding that self-reported disgust is prominent in the emotion profile of CSA survivors. Implicit disgust self-concept was not significantly correlated with other emotions or psychopathology. However, implicit disgust self-concept was found to be significantly associated with cognitive fusion. Discussion: Psychotherapeutic approaches for survivors of childhood sexual abuse should address the emotional experience of this population. In particular, these findings suggest that sadness and disgust should be targeted in therapy.

Aggression and violence are social behaviors that exact a significant toll on human societies. Individuals with aggressive tendencies display deficits in effortful control, particularly in affectively charged situations. However, not all individuals with poor effortful control are aggressive. This study uses event-related potentials (ERPs) to decompose the chronology of cognitive functions underlying the link between effortful control and aggression. Specifically, this study investigates which ERPs moderate the effortful control - aggression association. We examined three successive ERP components (P2, N2 and P3) for stimuli that required effortful control. Results indicated that N2 activation, but not P2 or P3 activation, moderated the relationship between effortful control and aggression. These effects were present in negative and neutral contexts. This moderating effect was consistent with previous studies linking neural processing efficiency with reduced activation during cognitive control tasks. Our results suggest that efficient cognitive processing moderates the association between effortful control and aggression.

The work within this thesis examined aspects of emotion processing among non-clinical females who varied in levels of eating-related psychopathology. Five studies employed a quantitative approach in order to assess potential deficits in both the control and experience of emotion. To examine the experience of emotion, Studies 1, 2 and 3 assessed the attentional processing of emotional stimuli in those with high and low levels of eating-related psychopathology. In Studies 1 and 2, specific components of attention bias including orientation, disengagement and avoidance were assessed in order to explore their role in contributing to disordered eating behaviour. Findings from these studies did not reveal any differences in attentional orienting between those with high and low levels of eating-related psychopathology. However, when primed with happy faces, those with high levels of disordered eating were significantly quicker than those with low levels to disengage from threat-relevant words. This finding could be interpreted in terms of emotional arousal with happy facial displays providing a protective function against subsequently presented stimuli. With regards to emotional avoidance, those with higher levels of eating-related psychopathology were more likely to avoid emotional displays relative to those with lower levels. In fact, a higher drive to achieve thinness was shown to predict a greater avoidance of both angry and happy facial expressions. Interestingly, depression, anxiety and alexithymia were all shown to impact upon attentional processing. In Study 3, the efficacy of attention training in reducing attentional biases towards threat in women with varying levels of disordered eating was examined. Importantly, a single session of attention training was found to be successful in modifying previously observed attentional biases towards threat. However, eating-related psychopathology was shown to have only a partial influence on participants attention processing. These findings suggest that the success of attention training may be independent of disordered eating. To examine the control of emotion within a non-clinical population, Study 4 utilised self-report questionnaires to explore associations between deficits in emotional functioning and severity of eating-related psychopathology. The data obtained from this questionnaire-based investigation are reported in a series of three short studies. Specifically, Study 4.1 of this chapter examined the relationship between difficulties in the regulation of emotion within eating-related psychopathology. Furthermore, Studies 4.2 and 4.3 set out to explore some of the factors which may influence emotion processing, such as pessimistic attitudes regarding emotional expression. Across all studies, the role of depression, anxiety and alexithymia as potential confounding factors was considered. Findings revealed a significant relationship between eating-related psychopathology and difficulties regulating emotion. Dysfunctional or negative attitudes towards the expression of emotion were also linked to a greater number of eating disorder-related concerns and behaviours. However, many of the associations between eating-related psychopathology and impaired emotional functioning were no longer apparent when depression, anxiety and alexithymia had been statistically accounted for. These findings not only support previous research, but highlight the importance of mood and alexithymia in contributing to the emotional deficits observed. Finally, Study 5 aimed to explore the potential consequences of inadequate emotion processing within eating-related psychopathology. Self-report measures were utilised to assess the frequency of eating-related intrusive thoughts in those with high levels of eating-related psychopathology. As predicted, those with greater levels of disordered eating reported experiencing a higher frequency of thoughts or intrusions relating to eating. This may point towards a failure to successfully process emotional experience in this group. Taken together, this body of work enhances the current understanding of the role of emotion processing in contributing to both the onset and maintenance of disordered eating. These findings also emphasise the key role of mood and alexithymia in influencing the relationship between emotional functioning and eating-related psychopathology. Therefore further research examining emotion processing within disordered eating must acknowledge the potential contribution of depression, anxiety and alexithymia. Furthermore, the present findings provide clear support for the development of a model of cognitive-emotion processing within eating-related psychopathology. The implications of these findings for both eating disorder treatment and prevention are discussed. Possible directions for future research are also identified.

Notre recherche porte sur le développement socio-cognitif, centré particulièrement sur le jugement moral, d’adolescents placés en foyers dans le cadre de mesures judiciaires. Les valeurs morales étudiées par le biais de la narration de dilemmes moraux, via la méthode clinico-critique piagétienne, ont été analysées en relation avec la qualité des interactions familiales et sociales des mineurs selon qu’ils aient été victimes ou non de maltraitances avant leur placement, et qu’ils sont auteurs ou non d’actes délictueux. Ces sujets appréhendés dans leur ensemble présentent un retard de développement du jugement moral en termes d’une hétéronomie morale dominante. Nos résultats ont été mis en lien avec l’activité cognitive structuro-fonctionnelle du sujet, leur anamnèse, les facteurs motivationnels et émotionnels, leur profil de personnalité, la consommation de neurotoxiques, le psychotraumatisme ainsi que les facteurs de résilience. Les sujets fortement carencés présentent un niveau moral très hétéronome, voire pour certains anomique, caractérisé par un mode de pensée figuratif et parfois des conduites asociales et violentes. L’âge du placement s’avère être un enjeu majeur dans la trajectoire développementale du sujet. Leur statut dans le groupe de pairs est davantage celui de « suiveur » et « exécutant ». Les sujets non carencés présentent, soit un profil socialisé et investi dans les apprentissages, soit un profil de leader délinquant, leurs compétences cognitives étant mises au service de leurs activités délictueuses. En conclusion, nous proposons des pistes de prise en charge psychologique, notamment en termes de remédiation cognitive et de suivi post-traumatique. / Our research examined the social and cognitive development of adolescents placed in institutions, more specifically on the subject’s aptitude of moral judgement. Their moral values were studied through the narration of moral dilemmas using Piaget’s clinical interview methods. The results were analysed in relation to the quality of the individual’s social and family interactions, in relation to whether or not they had been victims of abuse before their placement and whether or not they commit delinquent activities. Almost the entire group of subjects interviewed demonstrated a developmental delay in moral judgement in terms of dominant moral heteronomy. The results were examined in relation to the structural and functional cognitive activity of the subject. In addition their personal history, motivation, emotions, personality profile, neurotoxic substance consumption, psychological trauma, and resilience factors were taken into account. The underdeveloped subjects show a low level of moral heteronomy, for some it is even anomic, characterized by a figurative way of thinking and sometimes asocial and violent behaviour. The age of placement is a critical element in the subject’s developmental trajectory. Their place among their peers is that of a “follower” or “executer”. Normally developed subjects were both more social and implicated in their education or delinquent leaders. These individuals put their cognitive skills to use in their delinquent activities. In conclusion, we suggest psychological care, especially with cognitive remediation and post-traumatic care.