La consécration de la notion juridique de couple par la loi du 15 novembre 1999 a permis la reconnaissance de nouvelles formes de conjugalité au sein du Code civil. À la famille légitime autrefois valorisée par le Code napoléon succède une famille constituée d’un couple, marié ou non, de sexe différent ou de même sexe. Si la reconnaissance de l’autonomie de la notion de couple émanait d’une volonté d’adaptation du droit aux faits et nouvelles valeurs de la société, la reconnaissance par le législateur en 2013 du mariage entre personnes de même sexe atteste d’un processus en cours de dématrimonialisation du droit de la famille. Il a semblé utile de mettre en perspective l’évolution qu’a connu le droit français en la matière. À cet égard, l’approche comparée permet de révéler les contradictions et les atouts des conceptions renouvelées du couple et de la famille. Surtout, elle permet d’ouvrir sur une autre manière de concevoir les rapports familiaux, particulièrement au sein du système juridique marocain qui connaît nombre de transformations sociales. L’attention n’a que trop été portée sur les divergences entre les systèmes juridiques occidentaux et les systèmes d’inspiration islamique en matière familiale, sans s’intéresser à leurs causes profondes. Une telle attitude éloigne de la démarche comparative et favorise une réception à sens unique d’un système juridique par l’autre. Le choix du Maroc comme pays de comparaison n’est pas fortuit. Ce dernier a procédé en 2004 à la réforme du droit de la famille en portant une attention particulière à l’exigence d’égalité. Tout le défi pour le législateur est de nouer avec la modernité en adaptant le droit aux évolutions de la société, dans le respect du fondement du système politique et social : l’Islam. L’étude des droits de la famille des deux systèmes juridiques n’a pas pour objet leur rapprochement car les réponses apportées à la question familiale ne sont pas les mêmes. Pour autant, l’individu demeure au cœur de la réflexion, et le droit est appelé à assurer sa fonction classique d’organisation de la société. Il s’agit davantage, dans ce travail, de construire un pont pour favoriser une communicabilité entre deux systèmes juridiques différents. / The consecration of the legal notion of couple by the law of November 15th, 1999 allowed the recognition of new forms of conjugality within the Civil code. To the legitimate family formerly valued by the Napoleonic code succeeds a family constituted by a couple, married or not, by a different or same-sex sex. If the recognition of the autonomy of the notion ofcouple emanated from a will of adaptation of the law to the facts and the new values of the society, the recognition by the legislator in 2013 of the marriage between same-sex people attest of an ongoing process of dematrimonialization of the family law. It seemed useful to put in perspective the evolution which knew the French law on the subject. In this respect,the compared approach reveals the contradictions and the assets of the conceptions renewed of the couple and the family.Especially, she allows to open on another way of conceiving the family relationships, particularly within the Moroccan legal system which knows number of social transformations. The attention had too much concerned the differencesbetween the western legal systems and the systems of Islamic inspiration in family subject, without being interested in their underlying causes. Such an attitude takes away from the comparative approach and encourages a one-way reception of a legal system by the other one. The choice of Morocco as country of comparison is not fortuitous. The latter proceeded in 2004 to the reform of the family law by paying a particular attention on the requirement of equality. All the challenge for the legislator is to set with the modernity by adapting the right to the evolutions of the society, in the respect for the foundation of the political and social system: the Islam. The study of the rights of the family of both legal systems has not for object their rapprochement, because the answers brought to the family question are not the same. However, the individual remains at the heart of the reflexion, and the rule of law is called to assure its classic function of organization of the society. It is more a question, in this work, of building a bridge to favor a communicability betweentwo different legal systems.

A presente dissertação versa a teoria geral da determinação da lei aplicável no Direito Internacional Privado, sob a ótica de parâmetros cosmopolitas colhidos em outras ciências humanas, em perspectiva interdisciplinar. Analisam-se vários estudos recentes sobre o cosmopolitismo, bem como suas origens remotas, de modo a propor possíveis relações do tema com o método conflitual do Direito Internacional Privado. No capítulo I, empreende-se estudo histórico, retornando às origens do cosmopolitismo (filosofias grega e romana), passando pelo cosmopolitismo de Kant, no séc. XVIII, para então, finalmente, examinar os cosmopolitismos contemporâneos. Quanto a estes, procede-se à uma taxionomia e se exploram algumas proposições teóricas de especial utilidade para a determinação da lei aplicável. No capítulo II, busca-se transpor o cosmopolitismo do plano das demais ciências humanas para o plano da teoria jurídica em particular. Analisa-se, primeiro, o que implica a ideia de cosmopolitização do direito e, após, a relação entre o cosmopolitismo e o Direito Internacional Privado em específico. Dá-se especial atenção à aplicação da ideia de justiça cosmopolita no contexto da determinação da lei aplicável. No capítulo III, trata-se dos três grandes métodos de determinação da lei aplicável (multilateralismo, unilateralismo e materialismo), em perspectivas histórica e crítica. Conclui-se que a adoção do multilateralismo enquanto estrutura principal de determinação da lei aplicável, flexibilizado pelo princípio da proximidade, atende mais à imparcialidade cosmopolita que os outros dois métodos. No capítulo IV, propõe-se uma visão cosmopolita do princípio da ordem pública, concentrando-se em duas importantes evoluções teóricas mais recentes: as noções de ordem pública de proximidade e de ordem pública verdadeiramente internacional. Procede-se, ademais, a exame crítico da aplicação da exceção da ordem pública, no que se refere à lei aplicável, na jurisprudência brasileira recente. Ao fim do estudo, as principais conclusões são enumeradas. / This dissertation addresses international choice of law, through the lens of cosmopolitan standards collected from other humanities, undertaking an interdisciplinary approach. Many recent studies on cosmopolitanism are examined, as well as its remote origins, so as to propose links between choice of law and cosmopolitanism. In chapter I, a historical study is undertaken, going back to the origins of cosmopolitanism (Greek and Roman philosophers), dealing moreover with Kants cosmopolitanism (18th century) and contemporary cosmopolitanisms. Accordingly, a division into categories is proposed and some theoretical notions of special importance to choice of law are tackled. In chapter II, cosmopolitan concepts are applied to legal theory. First, consequences are drawn from the idea of cosmopolitanizing law. Afterwards, the relation between Conflict of Laws and cosmopolitanism is addressed. The focus is on the application of the idea of cosmopolitan justice to choice of law. In chapter III, the three existing choice of law methods are addressed (multilateralism, unilateralism and substantialism), historically and critically. It is concluded that the adoption of multilateralism as a general framework, flexibilized by the principe de proximité, is a better option in terms of cosmopolitan impartiality than the other two methods. In chapter IV, a cosmopolitan vision of public policy is proposed, focusing upon two important theories recently conceived: the notions of ordre public de proximité and of truly international public policy. Also, a critical address of the recent application of the public policy exception by Brazilian courts (within the choice of law context) is made. At the end, the main conclusions are enumerated.

Le traitement juridique de la procréation est volontiers présenté, en France et en Allemagne, comme servant à limiter les dérives, à garantir les valeurs fondatrices de la société tout en assurant la protection du corps humain, de la personne et de la dignité humaine. Cet encadrement apparaît comme nécessaire pour lutter contre les abus que la consécration d’une liberté procréative rendrait possibles. Mais est-ce réellement le principe de protection de la vie et de la personne qui constitue le paradigme principal du droit de la procréation ? En prenant notamment pour cadrage théorique les réflexions de Michel Foucault et de Giorgi Agamben sur la biopolitique, il apparaît que ce n’est pas la protection de la vie biologique, zoe, la vie nue, c'est-à-dire le seul fait de vivre, commun à toutes les espèces vivantes, que l’État entend protéger mais seulement certaines de ces formes : la vie bonne - c'est-à-dire la vie bonne, celle qui est axiologiquement et politiquement significative. Les diverses réglementations du champ procréatif - contraception, avortement, procréation médicalement assistée et gestation pour autrui - entendent mettre en œuvre des processus de normalisation de la vie, particulièrement visibles en ce qui concerne la famille et le handicap physique et mental. / How Law addresses procreation is often presented, both in France and Germany, as a way to limit abuses, to guarantee founding values of the society while ensuring at the same time the protection of the human body, the human person and its personal dignity.This legal framework seems to be necessary to prevent any abuse that may arise from procreative freedoms’ enshrinement.The question is thus the following : Is this principle of protection really constitutive of the main paradigm of reproductive rights ? Is the protection of life and of the human person the base of this paradigm ? Taking Michel Foucault’s and Giorgi Agamben’s work on biopolitic as a theoretical frame, it seems that the State does not intend to protect zoe (biological life), the « bare life », i.e. the simple fact of living, encompassing all living species.It appears that the State aims to only protect some forms of life : the « good » life, i.e. the life which is meaningful both axiologically and politically.Via various regulations on procreation - birth control, abortion, medically-assisted procreation or surrogate motherhood - the State implement processes that lead to normalize the life per se. These processus are especially visible when relate to the family as well as physical or mental disability.

[pt] A presente dissertação pretende abordar os aspectos empíricos da atuação do Tribunal de Contas da União (TCU) no Brasil desde o início da vigência da Constituição de 1988 até 2010. Para tanto, o trabalho se inicia com uma abordagem teórica sobre a prestação de contas estatais, representada por meio do fenômeno da accountability, sendo utilizada a análise realizada por diversos cientistas políticos, notadamente no contexto latino americano. Em um segundo momento, passa-se ao estudo da figura dos Tribunais de Contas, sintetizando as características de alguns modelos base de órgãos de controle externo existentes em outros países, discorrendo-se, posteriormente, sobre breves aspectos históricos do TCU – com ênfase para os debates da Constituinte de 87-88 -, desembocando nos aspectos normativos e institucionais da Corte de Contas no Brasil. Por fim, o trabalho revela as reais feições da atuação do TCU, demonstradas por meio da comparação jurídica sucessiva interna, realizada sob dois principais aspectos norteadores referentes ao Tribunal (a apreciação anual das contas prestadas pelo Presidente da República e o exercício de algumas atividades ordinárias do TCU, tais como fiscalizações, recebimento de denúncias, cobrança executiva, dentre outras), recobrindo o período de 1989 a 2010. / [en] This essay intends to cover the empirical aspects of the performance of the Federal Audit Court (Tribunal de Contas da União - TCU) since the beginning of the Constitution of 1988 to 2010. To this end, the work begins with a theoretical approach on the state accountability, represented by the accountability phenomenon, analyzed by several political scientists, especially in the context of Latin America. In a second moment, we pass to the study of the figure of the Audit Courts, summarizing the characteristics of some base models of external control agencies in other countries, writing, after that, about brief historical aspects of TCU - with emphasis on the debates of the 87-88 Constituent - and culminating in the regulatory and institutional aspects of the Federal Audit Court in Brazil. Finally, the work reveals the real features of the action of TCU, demonstrated by the legal successive internal comparison, carried out under two main guiding aspects related to the Court (the annual review of accounts rendered by the President and the exercise of some ordinary activities of TCU, such as inspections, receiving complaints, executive lawsuits, among others), covering the period from 1989 to 2010.

The aim of the thesis is to examine whether the prohibition of overcompensation in the Antitrust Damages Directive is compatible with the EU legal and normative framework. To this end, the analysis is carried out on two levels. First, the rationale for damages in the selected jurisdictions (England, France and Germany) and in the EU is examined to test the main underpinning justification for the prohibition of overcompensation in the Antitrust Damages Directive, i.e. the 'European legal tradition argument'. Second, the thesis addresses broader constitutional implications that underpin the debate on the desirability of the pursuit to prohibit overcompensation in the EU. These entail questions pertaining to the adoption of such measures and, thus, exploring whether the EU has the legitimacy to legislate and the related question of competence and the choice of the appropriate legal basis. The argument to be advanced in this thesis is that the aim of achieving a sufficient level of deterrence with awarding damages for EU competition law infringements stems from the very conceptual basis in which the right to damages is grounded - the principle of effective judicial protection and the principle of effectiveness. Thus, as the analysis reveals, the prohibition of overcompensation is inconsistent with the EU legal framework, since it has potential to jeopardise the deterrent or dissuasive function of antitrust damages actions. The prohibition of overcompensation has significantly contributed to the business-biased gist of the Directive, and thus to breaking the link between the rationale for the right to damages for EU competition law infringements, the legal basis and the content of the Directive. The thesis ultimately argues that the Directive's prohibition is incompatible with the principles of conferral, subsidiarity and proportionality, and to a considerable extent inconsistent with the EU's legal and normative framework.

O presente trabalho trata da ação anulatória da sentença arbitral doméstica como importante mecanismo de equilíbrio entre o judiciário e arbitragem, bem como de preservação das garantias fundamentais das partes. Inicialmente, analisa-se o exercício do poder jurisdicional pelos árbitros, bem como a equiparação da sentença arbitral à sentença judicial, o que faz com que aquela possa ser classificada como ato jurídico processual na aplicação da teoria das nulidades. Na sequência o trabalho realiza um estudo sobre os principais aspectos da ação anulatória da sentença arbitral, destacando alguns dos aspectos relevantes sobre as causas de nulidade previstas na lei 9.307/96. Dentre os principais temas relativos ao objeto do estudo, três são destacados para estudo aprofundado: a preservação das garantias fundamentais do processo em contraposição à flexibilidade do procedimento arbitral; o controle da violação à ordem pública; e os limites da atuação judicial na análise da demanda anulatória. A fim de garantir maiores subsídios para a pesquisa, realiza-se um estudo comparado em quatro países de culturas diferentes no que tange ao controle judicial da arbitragem (Portugal, França, Inglaterra e Estados Unidos). Por fim, os temas escolhidos são analisados à luz da doutrina e jurisprudência brasileiras, com inserções colhidas do estudo do direito comparado a fim de bem analisar a problemática. O objetivo do trabalho é demonstrar a importância da ação anulatória como meio de controle da sentença arbitral, através da ponderação da autonomia da vontade das partes e a liberdade contratual com a preservação da ordem pública a das garantias fundamentais do processo justo. / The present paper analyses the action for nullity of domestic arbitral awards and its role as an important mechanism for granting balance between state court and arbitration procedures as so as to preserve fundamental rights of the parties. At first, the paper makes an analysis of the jurisdictional power of the arbitrators and the equivalence of the judicial award and arbitrator award. As consequence, arbitrator award shall be classified as a procedural act and attract the application of nullity theory. Further, the paper makes a study over the main aspects concerning the action for nullity of arbitration awards, underlining some of the most relevant issues on the causes of nullity disposed in the Act 9.307/96. Above the core topics studied, three of them are highlighted and deeply analyzed: the granting of fundamental rights of the parties in contrast with the flexibility of the arbitral procedure; public policy control; and the limits of the judge while deciding an action of nullity. To ensure better support for the research, the paper makes a comparative study over the arbitration award judicial control (comprising Portugal, France, England and United States). Finally, the highlighted issues are examined under Brazilian doctrine and jurisprudence, regarding the elements taken from the comparative study, in order to well analyze the relevant problems. The overriding objective of the paper is to demonstrate the importance of the action of nullity as an instrument of control of arbitration awards, by means of weighting the principles of the free will to contract and due process of law.

Submitted by Rosina Valeria Lanzellotti Mattiussi Teixeira (rosina.teixeira@unisantos.br) on 2016-05-23T14:47:18Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Denyse Moreira Guedes.pdf: 8467669 bytes, checksum: 486e7243844f36cbd9f217344e6c1cad (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-05-23T14:47:18Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Denyse Moreira Guedes.pdf: 8467669 bytes, checksum: 486e7243844f36cbd9f217344e6c1cad (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-11-26 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES / The right to accessibility is universal, fundamental, especially for the visually impaired, solidified the constitutional right to equality and regulated in Brazil in terms of urban accessibility, the Brazilian Standard 9050 of the Brazilian Association of Technical Standards (ABNT / NBR 2004). The accessibility is minimal and basic rule of citizenship, so that materialized to in article 227, § 2º and article 244 of the Brazilian Federal Constitution. To give effect to these and other constitutional provisions pertinent to accessibility, was published, among others, the Law nº. 6.938/81, 7.853/89, 9.045/95, 10.048/00, 10.098/00 and 10.257/2001, which also tried to ensure the visually impaired person some social integration. Those standards are based on the fundamental human rights enshrined in constitutional provisions and several infra-constitutional norms. The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and its Optional Protocol, signed in New York on March 30, 2007, are incorporated into the Brazilian legal system by means of Decree nº 6.949 of 2009. It has been that it is the only treaty International human rights approved with a qualified quorum, confirming that the state should undertake all efforts to ensure accessibility, in order to promote the equality of all, in compliance with the foundations of the Republic, citizenship and human dignity. However, what still turns out is the existence of built environments and adapted without being subject to universal design, urban public policies exclusive and disordered urban planning measures affecting the mobility, accessibility and sustainability to public buildings and public parks, on public transport and their mutual interactions of the visually impaired. The comparative law has been central to certain bodies of law and the international experience directly influences many internal rules, technical and legal procedures. By comparing the existing systems in Portugal, Spain and Brazil, this study highlights the advance of some Brazilian cities on the accessibility of the visually impaired, above major cities of European countries, particularly capital, where this research was access. The research sought to draw a comparative framework, major advances in the Brazilian and international legislation related to the visually impaired. The proposals were limited to indicate the National Organization of the Blind of Spain (ONCE) as a source of funding to possibly necessary expenses in urban planning in these major cities; Furthermore, also highlighted was a Santos institution, "Lar das Moças Cegas" as a paradigm of the thesis, in view of what we have in our times in terms of accessibility for the visually impaired. / O direito à acessibilidade é universal, fundamental, sobretudo para os deficientes visuais, solidificado no direito constitucional de igualdade e regulamentado, no Brasil, em termos de acessibilidade urbana, pela Norma Brasileira 9050 da Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas (ABNT/NBR, 2004). A acessibilidade é regra mínima e básica de cidadania, tanto que materializou-a no artigo 227, § 2° e no artigo 244 da Constituição Federal brasileira. Para dar eficácia a esses e outros dispositivos constitucionais pertinentes à acessibilidade, editou-se, entre outras as Lei nº 6.938/81, 7.853/89, 9.045/95, 10.048/00 10.098/00, 10.257/2001, que também trataram de garantir à pessoa com deficiência visual alguma integração social. Essas normas fundamentam-se nos direitos humanos fundamentais, consagrados em normas constitucionais e em diversas normas infraconstitucionais. A Convenção sobre os Direitos das Pessoas com Deficiência e seu Protocolo Facultativo, assinados em Nova Iorque, em 30 de março de 2007, incorporam-se ao ordenamento jurídico brasileiro por meio do Decreto nº 6.949 de 2009. Tem-se que é o único tratado internacional de direitos humanos aprovado com quorum qualificado, ratificando que o Estado deverá empreender todos os seus esforços para garantir a acessibilidade, para que se promova a igualdade de todos, em cumprimento aos fundamentos da República, de cidadania e dignidade da pessoa humana. Todavia, o que ainda se constata é a existência de ambientes construídos e adaptados sem a observância ao desenho universal, políticas públicas urbanas excludentes e medidas de planejamento urbanístico desordenadas comprometendo a mobilidade, a acessibilidade e a sustentabilidade aos edifícios e logradouros públicos, no transporte coletivo e nas suas mútuas interações dos deficientes visuais. O direito comparado tem sido fundamental para determinados ramos jurídicos e a experiência internacional influencia diretamente muitas normas internas, procedimentos técnicos e jurídicos. Ao comparar os sistemas existentes em Portugal, Espanha e Brasil, o presente estudo destaca o avanço de algumas cidades brasileiras na acessibilidade do deficiente visual, acima de cidades importantes de países europeus, sobretudo capitais, em que esta pesquisa teve acesso. A pesquisa buscou traçar um quadro comparativo, com os principais avanços na legislação brasileira e internacional relacionada ao deficiente visual. As propostas limitaram-se a indicar a Organização Nacional de Cegos da Espanha (ONCE), como fonte de custeio aos gastos possivelmente necessários no planejamento urbano nessas importantes cidades; além disso, também destacou-se uma instituição santista, o ¿Lar das Moças Cegas¿ como paradigma da tese, em vista do que se tem hodiernamente em termos de acessibilidade de deficientes visuais.

En Algérie, la protection des marques est mise à l’épreuve par différentes formes d’atteintes, favorisant ainsi, un sentiment d’insécurité juridique très profond. Ce travail de recherche a vocation à effectuer une étude du droit positif algérien afin d’évaluer les dispositions relatives à la protection de la marque et d’en cerner les dispositions lacunaires pour tenter d’apporter des solutions. Nous allons analyser l’existence juridique de la marque afin de comprendre quand le titulaire bénéficie d’une protection sur sa marque, pour ensuite, exposer les instruments prévus dans la législation pour mettre en œuvre cette protection accordée à la marque avant et après son enregistrement. Tel est l’objet de la première partie. Nous allons ensuite dans la seconde partie étudier la protection de la marque au regard du droit comparé en analysant des notions et des principes prévus dans des droits étrangers, tels que l’acquisition de la protection de la marque par l’usage, la protection des marques non visuelles et le risque d’association dans l’esprit du public des consommateurs. Nous nous sommes également intéressés à la recherche d’un système procédural plus complet que celui déjà adopté en droit algérien. Serait important un recours judiciaire contre le refus d’enregistrement et de la procédure d’opposition contre les demandes d’enregistrement de marques, deux procédures négligées en droit algérien. Pour à la fin tenter de chercher une meilleure protection de la marque notoire, afin de proposer ces notions et principes, après avoir tenté de les adapter à la situation en Algérie, comme solutions pour rendre le droit positif algérien plus efficace et complet / In Algeria, trademark protection is put to the test by various forms of infringement, thus favoring a very deep sense of legal uncertainty. This research is intended to carry out a study of Algerian positive law in order to evaluate the provisions relating to the protection of the brand and to identify the incomplete provisions to try to provide solutions. We will analyze the legal existence of the mark in order to understand when the holder benefits from a protection on his mark, then to expose the instruments envisaged in the legislation to implement the protection granted to the mark before and after its registration, which is the purpose of the first part. In the second part, we will study the protection of the brand with regard to comparative law by analyzing concepts and principles provided for in foreign rights, such as the acquisition of trademark protection by use, the protection of non-visual marks and the risk of association in the minds of the consumers. We are also interested in the search for a more complete procedural system than that already adopted in Algerian law. It would be important to have a judicial appeal against the refusal of registration and the opposition procedure against trademark applications ; two procedures neglected by the Algerian legislator. In the end, we try to seek a better protection of the well-known brand, to propose these concepts and principles, after trying to adapt them to the situation in Algeria, as solutions to make Algerian positive law more effective and complete

The objective of this thesis is to develop a conceptual model for classification of real property rights and public regulations. The model is called the Legal Cadastral Domain Model. The model is intended to be a terminological framework for cross-border exchange of cadastral information. Parties exchanging cadastral information via the model do not require detailed knowledge of the legal system in which the right or regulation is created. The model is based on the principle that real property rights and public regulations influence real property ownership by being either beneficial or encumbering for the real property owner. The theoretical departure of the research presented in this thesis is in comparative legal theory and terminology. Real property rights and public regulations are important parts of real property legislation as they describe and secure the use and other exploitation of land, water and air. The research is conducted through studies in real property legislation and associated literature. The model has been developed through case studies on real property rights in Portugal, Germany, Ireland, the Netherlands and Sweden and public regulations in Portugal and Sweden. The generated results show that it seems possible to describe real property rights and public regulations regardless of their legal origin, at least in Western legal systems. The thesis also includes a discussion of terminological aspects concerning definitions of three-dimensional (3D) real property. The thesis consists of a summary and 6 papers. / <p>QC 20120629</p>

The overarching purpose of this doctoral thesis is to determine if the system of legal mechanisms in European Community law governing what procedural rules national courts shall apply to Community rights can be reformed to better balance involved interests. European Community law is often applied and enforced by ordinary national courts that, as a general rule, supplement substantive Community rules with national procedural rules. While the Community rights that individuals can rely upon before national courts are the same in all Member States, the procedural rules that national courts apply to those Community rights can and often does differ between the Member States. While this order is often acceptable, Community law contains a number of exceptions from the general rule that it is the Member States that decide what procedural rules national courts shall apply to Community rights. Such exceptions are primarily motivated by the need to ensure the effectiveness of Community. In order to determine what interests should be taken into account when deciding what procedural rules national courts shall apply to Community rights and how a more balanced system could be constructed, the European legal system is herein compared to that of the United States. American State courts apply Federal law much like national European courts apply European Community law and, also similar to Community law, a system of legal mechanism governing what procedural rules State courts shall apply to Federal rights has developed. While U.S. law and European Community law are in this respect similar, the two are not identical. A comparison between the two reveals that the European approach improperly overlooks several interests that are central in the American approach. Most importantly, the European approach emphasizes and promotes the effectiveness of union law at the expense of upholding a proper division of power between union and states. American law also provides European Community law with practical advices regarding how a better balanced approach can be constructed and points to solutions that should be avoided.