Research on the process of writing uses bursts and pauses as key artifacts of underlying cognitive processes. However, the definition of a pause in writing is primarily based on tradition and ease of comparison between studies. This study explores keystroke logging data collected from middle school pupils (N=46) in northern Sweden, Norway and Finland and questions the traditionally defined pause’s usefulness, comparability and validity for investigating the underlying cognitive processes during writing. By examining the raw computer keystroke log data it was revealed that the group had a large variance in typing speed between participants and that different textual contexts had big variances compared to each other. Through exploration of different pause definitions’ effects on the text it was concluded that the twice the median length of pause (median x 2) was a good measurement for investigating pauses in sentences. Further, the 1.5 times the median (median x 1.5) for pauses between keystrokes within words proved useful for investigating the production of individual words. / Forskning på skrivprocesser har länge använt kaskader och pauser som nyckelartefakter av underliggande kognitiva processer. Definitionen av en paus i skrivande är dock främst baserade på tradition och direkt jämförbarhet mellan studier. Denna studie utforskar loggade tangenttrycknings data insamlade från elever (N=46) i mellanstadiet i skolor i norra Sverige, Norge och Finland och ifrågasätter den traditionellt definerade pausens användbarhet, jämförbarhet och validitet för att utforska underliggande kognitiva processer under skrivande. Genom att granska rå-data visade det sig att gruppen som helhet hade stora skillnader i skrivhastighet mellan deltagarna och att olika textuella kontext hade stora skillnader jämfört med varandra. Genom en undersökning av olika paus definitioners effekter på text kom det fram att dubbla längden på medianen för pauser (medianen x 2) var ett bra mått för att undersöka pauser i meningar. Dessutom var 1.5 gånger medianen (medianen x 1.5) i inom-ords kontexter ett användbart mått för att studera produktionen av individuella ord.

[pt] A presente dissertação aborda a escrita bilíngue – Português como L1 e Inglês como L2, a partir de uma perspectiva cognitiva, com vistas a buscar caracterizar, de forma integrada, o processo e o produto da escrita, e possíveis correlações entre desempenho em escrita e aspectos atencionais. Participam da pesquisa 15 professores de língua inglesa (10 mulheres e 5 homens), idade média de 43,5 anos (DP 13,25), nativos do Português brasileiro. No estudo, foram empregadas ferramentas computacionais que possibilitam o registro das ações de escrita no curso da produção textual de textos argumentativos (programa Inputlog), a análise automática de características linguísticas do texto final (Nilc-Metrix (L1) e Coh-Metrix (L2) e a verificação de padrões de conectividade no texto final, por meio de atributos de grafos (SpeechGraphs). Adotou-se também o teste ANT - Attention Network Test com o intuito de ampliar a reflexão a respeito de fatores cognitivos e possíveis influências na produção textual. Na análise do processo de escrita, foram examinados tanto padrões de pausa como operações de escrita ativa e ações de revisão (inserções e apagamentos). Na análise do produto, consideraram-se parâmetros ligados a aspectos vocabulares, semânticos, sintáticos e índices de legibilidade, e informações sobre recorrência lexical e conectividade entre palavras. No que tange ao processo, os resultados do estudo revelaram diferenças entre as duas línguas, com valores mais altos associados à escrita em Inglês, para (i) pausas no interior de palavras - possivelmente sinalizando uma demanda de ordem ortográfica - e (ii) percentual de escrita ininterrupta, indicando uma escrita com menos interrupções, com menor número de alterações/revisões. O estudo de correlação revelou que os participantes apresentam o mesmo perfil de escrita na L1 e na L2. Na análise do produto por meio do Coh-Metrix (Inglês) e Nilc-Metrix (Português), verificou-se, por meio de índice de legibilidade, que os textos apresentam complexidade moderada nas duas línguas. A despeito de diferenças em como as métricas são definidas em cada Programa, os resultados sugerem que os textos em Português apresentam graus de complexidade que se correlacionam com aspectos sintáticos (como número de palavras antes do verbo principal e índice de Flesch) e semânticos (grau de concretude). Na L2, destaca-se que a diversidade lexical permanece sendo um dos indicadores mais confiáveis de proficiência e graus de complexidade, correlacionando-se com comportamentos de pausas (antes de palavras) e revisão (normal production). Em relação ao SpeechGraphs, foram observadas diferenças significativas entre os textos na L1 e na L2 para quase todos os atributos de grafos analisados, o que é interpretado como um reflexo da forma como o programa lida com características morfológicas das duas línguas. Não foram observadas correlações entre o comportamento dos falantes na L1 e na L2. Foram ainda conduzidos estudos de correlação entre os dados do Inputlog e os das ferramentas Coh-Metrix e Nilc-Metrix e entre estas e os dados do SpeechGraphs. Nos dois estudos, observou-se uma correspondência entre parâmetros indicativos de complexidade das ferramentas utilizadas, sugerindo um caminho relevante de exploração de análise integrada processo-produto para trabalhos futuros. Em relação ao estudo de correlação entre dados do Inputlog e do ANT, destacaram-se as correlações entre acurácia e tempo de reação nas condições experimentais e os percentuais de apagamentos. Os presentes achados abrem caminho e trazem contribuições significativas para o campo da psicolinguística no âmbito da pesquisa entre L1 e L2. / [en] This dissertation addresses bilingual writing – Portuguese as L1 and English as L2 – from a cognitive perspective, aiming to characterize both the writing process and the final product in an integrated manner and explore correlations between writing performance and attentional aspects. The research involves 15 English language teachers (10 women and 5 men) with an average age of 43.5 years (SD 13.25), native speakers of Brazilian Portuguese. The study utilized computational tools to record writing actions during the production of argumentative texts (Inputlog program), automatically analyzed linguistic aspects from the text (Nilc-Metrix program for Portuguese and Coh-Metrix for English) and verify connectivity patterns in the final text using graph attributes (SpeechGraphs program). The Attention Network Test (ANT) was also adopted. In the analysis of the writing process, patterns of pauses, active writing operations, and revision actions (insertions and deletions) were examined. In the product analysis, parameters related to vocabulary, semantics, syntax, readability índices, as well as information on lexical recurrence and word connectivity, were considered. Regarding the writing process, the results of the study revealed differences between the two languages, with higher values associated with writing in English, particularly in terms of (i) pauses within words, indicating orthographic demands, and (ii) the percentage of uninterrupted writing, suggesting less interruption and fewer alterations/revisions. Correlation analysis indicated that participants exhibited a similar writing profile in both L1 and L2. In the product analysis using Coh-Metrix (English) and Nilc-Metrix (Portuguese), it was found, through readability índices, that the texts exhibited moderate complexity in both languages. Despite differences in how metrics are defined in each program, the results suggest that texts in Portuguese show a higher level of complexity when considering syntactic aspects (such as the number of words before main verbs) and semantic aspects (concreteness degree). For L2, lexical diversity remains one of the most reliable proficiency indicators, correlating with pause behavior (before words) and revision (normal production). Regarding SpeechGraphs, significant differences were observed between texts in L1 and L2 for almost all analyzed graph attributes, reflecting how the program deals with morphological characteristics of the two languages. No correlations were observed between the behavior of speakers in L1 and L2. Additionally, correlation studies were conducted between Inputlog data and Coh-Metrix and Nilc-Metrix tools, as well as between these tools and Speech Graph data. In both studies, a correspondence was observed between parameters indicative of complexity in the tools used, suggesting a relevant path for exploring integrated process-product analysis in future research. Regarding the correlation study between Inputlog and ANT data, notable correlations emerged between accuracy and reaction time in experimental conditions and percentages of deletions. These findings pave the way for significant contributions to the field of psycholinguistics in the context of research between L1 and L2.

<p>Keystroke logging records keyboard activity during writing. Time and position of all keystrokes are stored in a log file, which facilitates detailed analysis of all pauses, revisions and movements undertaken during writing. Keystroke logging further includes a replay function, which can be used as a tool for reflection and analysis of the writing process. During writing, writers continuously plan, transcribe, read, and revise in order to create a text that meets with their goals and intentions for the text. These activities both interact and trigger one another.</p><p>This thesis includes studies in which keystroke recordings are used as bases for visualisation of and reflection on the cognitive processes that underlie writing. The keystroke logging methodology is coupled with Geographical information systems (GIS) and stimulated recall in order to enhance the understanding of keystroke logged data as representations of interacting cognitive activities during writing. Particular attention is paid to writing revision and a taxonomy for analysis of on-line revision is proposed. In the taxonomy, revisions made at the point of inscription are introduced as ‘pre-contextual’ revisions, and highlighted as potential windows on cognitive processing during transcription. The function of pre-contextual revisions as revisions of form and concepts was ascertained in an empirical study, which also showed that 13-year-old writers revised more form and concepts at the point of inscription when they wrote in English as a foreign language (EFL) than in Swedish as a first language (L1).</p><p>In this thesis, a learning method, Peer-based intervention (PBI), is introduced and examined through case studies and statistical analysis. PBI is based on theories about cognitive capacity, noticing, individual-based learning and social interaction. In PBI, the keystroke-logging replay facility is used as a tool for reflection on and discussion of keystroke logged data, i.e. representations of cognitive processes active during writing. In the studies presented in this thesis, teen-aged and adult writers’ texts, written before and after PBI, were analysed according to text quality and revision. Descriptive and argumentative texts in both L1 and EFL were included in the studies. The results showed that PBI raised adult and teen-aged writers’ awareness of linguistic and extra-linguistic features, and that the effect varied across levels of learner ability, text type and language.</p>

Keystroke logging records keyboard activity during writing. Time and position of all keystrokes are stored in a log file, which facilitates detailed analysis of all pauses, revisions and movements undertaken during writing. Keystroke logging further includes a replay function, which can be used as a tool for reflection and analysis of the writing process. During writing, writers continuously plan, transcribe, read, and revise in order to create a text that meets with their goals and intentions for the text. These activities both interact and trigger one another. This thesis includes studies in which keystroke recordings are used as bases for visualisation of and reflection on the cognitive processes that underlie writing. The keystroke logging methodology is coupled with Geographical information systems (GIS) and stimulated recall in order to enhance the understanding of keystroke logged data as representations of interacting cognitive activities during writing. Particular attention is paid to writing revision and a taxonomy for analysis of on-line revision is proposed. In the taxonomy, revisions made at the point of inscription are introduced as ‘pre-contextual’ revisions, and highlighted as potential windows on cognitive processing during transcription. The function of pre-contextual revisions as revisions of form and concepts was ascertained in an empirical study, which also showed that 13-year-old writers revised more form and concepts at the point of inscription when they wrote in English as a foreign language (EFL) than in Swedish as a first language (L1). In this thesis, a learning method, Peer-based intervention (PBI), is introduced and examined through case studies and statistical analysis. PBI is based on theories about cognitive capacity, noticing, individual-based learning and social interaction. In PBI, the keystroke-logging replay facility is used as a tool for reflection on and discussion of keystroke logged data, i.e. representations of cognitive processes active during writing. In the studies presented in this thesis, teen-aged and adult writers’ texts, written before and after PBI, were analysed according to text quality and revision. Descriptive and argumentative texts in both L1 and EFL were included in the studies. The results showed that PBI raised adult and teen-aged writers’ awareness of linguistic and extra-linguistic features, and that the effect varied across levels of learner ability, text type and language.

Writing is one of the four skills that students learning a foreign language are supposed to acquire, and writing often has an important role in the language classroom. Furthermore, in the field of cultural and arts education, a process-oriented approach is considered essential for learning. However, even though we see an increased interest in emphasizing the writing process, in reality, what is often commented, discussed and graded is the final outcome - the product. Consequently, features of the writing process, like fluency, revisions, and pauses, are not considered. This thesis explores what information about the writing process might add to the picture. In this manner, the current study investigates the writing process of advanced Swedish EFL (English as a Foreign Language) learners through keystroke logging programme. With the increased use of word processing tools, and not least with the development of keystroke logging tools, we now have the possibility to take also the details of the writing process into account. As Spelman Miller and Sullivan (2006:1) point out, “[a]s an observational tool, keystroke logging offers the opportunity to capture details of the activity of writing, not only for the purposes of the linguistic, textual and cognitive study of writing, but also for the broader applications concerning the development of language learning, literacy, and language pedagogy”. In the present study, a keystroke logging programme named Inputlog has been used, which allows researchers to get a better understanding of writing processes as well as cognitive processes during writing (Lindgren &amp; Sullivan, 2002).

Processen vid översättning av fasta fraser har hittills inte skänkts mycket uppmärksamhet inom den processorienterade översättningsvetenskapen. Denna deskriptiva studie försöker bidra med empiriskt material angående vissa aspekter av översättningsprocessen vid översättning av svenska fasta fraser till tyska. I undersökningen med sex tvåspråkiga försökspersoner, varav tre yrkesverksamma översättare och tre personer utan översättningserfarenhet, användes en kombination av en produktbaserad metod och processinriktade metoder som skrivloggning med Translog och retrospektion för att finna ut vilka översättningsstrategier vid översättningen av idiom och andra fasta fraser som väljs, på vilka vägar försökspersonerna kommer fram till sina slutliga val och om det kan skönjas några skillnader mellan yrkesöversättarna och lekmännen. Resultaten visar bl.a. att det var vanligast att översätta med parafrasering samt med en målspråksfras med liknande betydelse och liknande eller olik form, och att försökspersonerna kom fram till sina slutliga val med enbart få provisoriska skriftliga motsvarigheter, men genom en del längre överväganden kring betydelse och stil. Angående skillnader mellan de två testgrupperna framträder rätt tydligt att yrkesöversättarna överlag var försiktigare med användningen av direkta frasmotsvarigheter än de oerfarna deltagarna, men använde sig av parafrasering i mycket större utsträckning, samt att funderingar kring stilnivå, målgrupp och textfunktion i denna grupp var mera utpräglade. / The process in translating idioms and other fixed expressions has not yet been given much attention in process oriented translation studies. In this study involving three professional translators and three bilingual participants without any training or experience in translation, types and frequency of chosen translation strategies, the ways in which the participants arrived at their final choices, as well as possible differences between the two groups of participants were investigated, using a combination of product and process oriented methods such as keystroke logging with Translog and retrospection. Results indicate that paraphrasing and translation with an expression with similar meaning and similar or different form are the strategies most frequently used in both groups, and that there are only few occurrencies of preliminary versions in the writing process, but quite many examples of negotiation of meaning and style as expressed in the verbalizations. Compared with the novices the professional translators tended to be more cautious in their use of idiomatic equivalents and to consider aspects like target group or style and function of the target text more carefully.

This exploratory study investigates the role of academic writing in a second language (L2) with automated writing evaluation (AWE) tools utilizing generative artificial intelligence (AI), as well as the role of such AI-assistance in cognitive writing processes. The research questions asked if there was a relationship between AWE suggestions and keystroke dynamics, how L2 writers interpreted AWE suggestions and made their decisions, and how AI-assisted writing functions within a cognitive model of writing. Six academics wrote a text in English as L2 using a keystroke logging program. The text was later revised using the AWE program InstaText while their interactions were screen recorded. The recording was then promptly followed by stimulated recall interviews. The keystroke logging data that indicates cognitive demand (e.g., pause length, pause frequency, and deletion frequency) were compared to the AWE suggestion frequency. A thematic analysis was conducted on the interviews to investigate the participants’ metacognitive reflections about their decision-making process. A cognitive model of the writing process was used to map the cognitive processes with the keystroke logging data, AWE interactions, and metacognitive reflections. The findings indicate that longer pauses and fewer typos led to fewer AWE suggestions. Six types of metacognitive reflections were identified in the qualitative data, which was then interpreted together with the quantitative data through a cognitive model of the writing process. / Denna explorativa studie undersöker akademiskt skrivande på ett andra språk (L2) med automatiserade skrivbedömningsverktyg (AWE) som använder generativ artificiell intelligens (AI), samt AI-assistansens roll i kognitiva skrivprocesserna. Studien undersökte om det fanns en relation mellan AWE-förslag och tangentloggningsdata, hur L2-skribenter tolkade AWE-förslag och fattade sina beslut, och hur AI-assisterat skrivande fungerar inom en kognitiv modell av skrivande. Sex akademiker skrev en text på engelska som L2 med ett tangentloggningsprogram. Texten reviderades sedan med AWE-programmet InstaText medan deltagarnas interaktioner spelades in på skärmen. Inspelningen följdes omedelbart av stimulated recall-intervjuer. Tangentloggningsdata som indikerar kognitiv belastning (pauslängd, pausfrekvens och raderingsfrekvens) jämfördes med frekvensen av AWE-förslag. En tematisk analys utfördes på intervjuerna för att undersöka deltagarnas metakognitiva reflektioner kring deras beslutsfattande. En kognitiv modell av skrivprocessen användes för att kartlägga de kognitiva processerna med tangentloggningsdata, AWE-interaktionerna och metakognitiva reflektionerna. Resultaten indikerar att längre pauser och färre stavningsfel ledde till färre AWE-förslag. Sex typer av metakognitiva reflektioner identifierades i de kvalitativa data, vilket tolkades tillsammans med de kvantitativa data genom en kognitiv modell av skrivande.