The technological development of recent years has brought not only new forms of electronic communication and social phenomena, but also a number of legal questions. As the internet creates a parallel cyberspace, a number of traditional legal rules have been called into question, including the rules for determination of court jurisdiction and governing law. This area is discussed in this dissertation thesis. The goal of this thesis is to identify problematic moments of interpretation and application of existing rules of private international law in the context of cross- border delicts on the internet and to find suitable solutions if they exist. Regarding methodology, this thesis uses the analytical approach, in particular in relation to case law and legal regulations. It is complemented by the comparative method, regarding evolution in time and regarding various legal cultures. The first chapter deals with the phenomena of digital information, the internet and the related philosophical or social areas, such as virtuality or cyberspace. The second chapter deals with legal regulation of the internet, censorship and the special position of certain providers of information services. In the third chapter there are defined the concepts of delict and delictual liability, with emphasis of this institute in...

Este estudo versou sobre os caminhos da formação do Direito Comercial brasileiro a partir das reformas pombalinas no século XVIII até a promulgação do Código Comercial brasileiro de 1850, procurando expor em quais pontos em se diferenciou do Direito Civil. Para tanto, no primeiro capítulo, expôs-se de que forma se deu a penetração das ideias Iluministas em Portugal, especialmente por meio da obra de LUÍS ANTÓNIO VERNEY. Em seguida, procurou-se demonstrar como essas ideias informaram as reformas levadas a efeito pelo Marquês de Pombal no século XVIII. No segundo capítulo, objetivou-se evidenciar as alterações na sociedade e na estrutra do império luso-brasileiro a partir da abertura dos portos em 1808 e de que forma estas alterações tiveram impacto na História do Direito Comercial nacional. O terceiro capítulo destinou-se a provar o influxo de ideias jusracionalistas no Direito Comercial brasileiro por meio da adoção da teoria subjetiva da causa, consagrada legislativamente no Código Civil francês de 1804. O trabalho, portanto, destinou-se a por em relevo um aspecto da História do Direito privado brasileiro que não se coaduna com a tradição jurídica luso-brasileira / This study refers to the formation of Brazilian Commercial Law from the pombalinas reforms until the promulgation of the Brazilian Code of Commerce in 1850. Throughout the work we tried to demonstrate how the Commercial Law followed a different tradition comparing with the Civil Law in Brazil. Thus, the first chapter demonstrates the Enlightenment influx in Portugal, specially through the work of LUÍS ANTÓNIO VERNEY. Then, the influence of VERNEYS ideas and the reforms that took place by the hands of the Marquês de Pombal in Portugal was showed. The second chapter demonstrates the social and political modifications that happened in the Portuguese Empire after the opening of the Brazilian ports to the trade of the world. At this point, there was also a study on the impact of the these developments in the History of the Brazilian Commercial Law. The third and last chapter attempts to prove the influx of Enlightenment demonstrating that the Code of Commerce of 1850 adopts the subjective theory of cause which is the same as in the French Code Civil of 1804. Therefore, this work demonstrated how the Brazilian Commercial Law followed different juridical tradition in comparison with the Brazilian Civil Law.

This thesis is about corporate attribution in private law. Unlike human persons, companies are artificial legal persons. They lack a physical body with which to act, and a mind with which to think. English law therefore developed the concept of attribution so that legal rules could be applied to companies. Attribution is the process of legal reasoning by which the acts and states of mind of human individuals acting for a company are treated as that of the company, so as to establish the company’s rights against and obligations owed to other parties. This thesis examines the rules of attribution across the private law of obligations, focusing on the law of contract, tort, unjust enrichment, and selected aspects of equitable liability. Three main arguments are made in this thesis. First, there is a sharp distinction between the rules of attribution and the substantive rules of private law to which they apply. The former belongs in the law of persons, and it concerns when the acts and states of mind of an individual can be attributed to a company. The latter belongs in the law of obligations. Second, the same rules of attribution should be, and have largely been used across the entire expanse of private law. Regardless of the area of private law in which the question of attribution arises, the same question is being asked, and so the law’s answer should be the same. Like should be treated alike. This is normatively desirable, because it ensures coherence across private law. Third, it is therefore possible to state the rules of attribution that apply in private law. The acts of an individual A will be attributed to the company C where they were (i) specifically authorised (‘specific authority’), (ii) where A performs an act within the class of acts that A has power to do on behalf of C, even if A is acting in breach of duty (‘actual authority’), or (iii) where A has either been placed in a position or been held out by C such that a reasonable person in the position of a third party would reasonably believe that A had the power to act for C (‘apparent authority’). A’s knowledge will be attributed to C where it is material to the class of acts that A had specific or actual authority to do on behalf of C. Although commonly thought to be a series of diverse, disparate rules found in different doctrines and different areas of law, the rules of attribution form a remarkably coherent, consistent whole across private law.

O início do século XXI reservou às associações de interesse privado (AIPs) um novo papel. Além de coordenar os sistemas agroindustriais para sua competitividade, os órgãos de representação passaram a ser cobrados por sua iniciativa e liderança na área de sustentabilidade. Essa nova mudança ambiental traz novamente a necessidade de re-planejamento das associações setoriais com desenvolvimento de novas competências. Para o entendimento desse processo, definiu-se como problema de pesquisa a seguinte questão: Como as associações de interesse privado no agronegócio coordenam suas cadeias de valor? Como elas se planejam e organizam internamente para atingir esse objetivo central? A pesquisa empírica fez uso do método do estudo de caso para estudar oito associações setoriais no Brasil, Argentina e Colômbia, relacionados às cadeias produtivas da soja, cana e café. A análise dos casos e o contraste com o referencial teórico permitiu a compreensão de como pode se organizar uma associação de interesse privado para exercer o seu papel de coordenação setorial com eficiência e eficácia. A sobrevivência no longo prazo de uma AIP depende da garantia de que o benefício entregue individualmente a um associado seja superior a sua taxa associativa. Para evitar os conflitos internos e os custos de \"agência\", a AIP precisa oferecer uma estrutura de governança adequada bem como dividir os incentivos seletivamente por grupo estratégico representado. Deve para tanto ter um sistema de inteligência competitiva para fazer uma análise do ambiente de negócios e da cadeia de valor, mas também cuidar da análise interna, para que os associados estejam satisfeitos em termos de participação no processo de tomada de decisão e, principalmente, com os benefícios recebidos. / The beginning of 21st century presents a new role for private interest associations. Beyond the coordination of agribusiness systems´ competitiveness, these representative boards started to be demanded by their initiatives and leadership in the sustainability issue. This new environmental change brought again the need of strategic planning by the organizations with the development of new competences. For understanding this process, the research problem was defined as: How do the private interest associations in the agribusiness coordinate their value chains? How do they plan and organize themselves to reach that main objective? The empirical research has used the case study method to analyze eight sector associations in Brazil, Argentina and Colombia, related to soybean, sugarcane and coffee agribusiness systems. The analysis of the case studies and the contrast with the theoretical framework have allowed the comprehension about how a private interest association can organize itself to perfom its role of sector coordination with efficiency and effectiveness. The private interest association survival in the long run depends on the quality assurance that the individual benefits delivered to the associates are higher than the associative fee. In order to avoid the internal conflicts and the \"agency\" costs, the private interest association has to provide an appropriate governance structure as well as to divide the incentives selectively by the strategic group represented. In this sense, it should have a business intelligence system to do an analysis of the business environment and the value chain, but also conditions to do a continuous internal analysis to guarantee the participation of the associates in the decision process, and mainly the satisfaction with the received benefits.

Après avoir un temps été cantonné à des hypothèses limitées, le préjudice de perte de chances a progressivement conquis des pans variés du droit privé. Création prétorienne des juridictions judiciaires apparue à la fin du XIXème siècle puis consacrée par le juge administratif, la perte de chances a récemment fait son entrée dans le Code civil et le Code de commerce. Son succès se vérifie également par son omniprésence dans les propositions de réforme du droit des obligations qui se sont succédé en droit interne ainsi que par sa reconnaissance par certains droits étrangers, par la Cour européenne des droits de l'Homme et par la Cour de justice de l'Union européenne. Pourtant, la perte de chances ne bénéficie d'aucune définition légale et la jurisprudence s'est bien plus dédiée à accueillir un nombre croissant d'hypothèses sous la dénomination de « perte de chances» plutôt qu'attelée à dégager le substrat de cette figure. En conséquence, celle-ci accuse un déficit de conceptualisation qui s'est révélé préjudiciable. L'absence d'un cadre d'utilisation rigoureusement délimité a ouvert la voie à l'extension erronée de la perte de chances ainsi qu'à la manipulation des conditions pourtant peu contraignantes posées à sa réparation. La doctrine en est même venue à douter de l'identité conceptuelle de la perte de chances, certains auteurs y voyant un préjudice quand d'autres, plus rares, l'analysent comme une technique visant à assouplir l'appréciation du lien de causalité. Le flou conceptuel a inéluctablement mené à un régime fuyant et, vicieusement, ce régime fuyant n'a guère incité à la rigueur conceptuelle. S'est alors répandue l'opinion que grâce à cette notion les juges s'abandonneraient à une casuistique déroutante en qualifiant le préjudice, selon leur tempérament, d'éventuel, pour repousser l'indemnisation ou de certains quand ils souhaitent dédommager. À l'heure de la réforme imminente de la responsabilité civile, l'entreprise de conceptualisation du préjudice de perte de chances était invitante. Pour parvenir à saisir efficacement la figure de la perte de chances, la thèse accorde une attention particulière à l'objet qui la caractérise - pourtant trop peu exploité jusqu'à présent-, à savoir les chances de succès dont était investie la victime antérieurement à la survenance du fait générateur et l'aléa qui les sous-tend. La thèse met d'abord en lumière le fait que cet examen permet de justifier le principe de la protection des chances en tant qu'intérêt protégé par la responsabilité civile puis de rationaliser cette protection. La thèse met ensuite en exergue le fait que c'est l'examen de l'aléa qui commande les principes régissant la réparation du préjudice qui s'infère de la lésion de cet intérêt. / After being restricted for a time to limited assumptions, the loss of opportunity loss gradually won over various parts of private law. Praetorian creation of judicial jurisdictions appeared at the end of the nineteenth century and then sanctioned by the administrative judge, the loss of opportunity has recently entered the Civil Code and the Commercial Code. Its success is also demonstrated by its omnipresence in the successive proposals for the reform of the law of obligations that followed in domestic law as well as by its recognition by certain foreign laws, by the European Court of Human Rights and by the Court of Justice of the European Union. Yet, the loss of opportunity shows a deficit of conceptualization that has proved prejudicial. The absence of a rigorously defined framework of use has opened the way to the erroneous extension of the loss of chances as well as the manipulation of the conditions, which are not very constraining to its repair. At the time of impending civil liability reform, the business of conceptualizing loss of opportunity harm was inviting. ln order to effectively grasp the figure of the loss of opportunity, the thesis pays particular attention to the object that characterizes it - yet too little exploited so far - namely the chances of success of the victim preceding the occurrence of the generating event and, more precisely, the hazard that underlies them. The thesis first highlights the fact that this examination makes it possible to justify the principle of the protection of opportunities as an interest protected by civil liability and then to rationalize this protection. The thesis then highlights the fact that it is the examination of the hazard that governs the principles governing the reparation of the harm that is inferred from the injury of this interest.

No description available.

By the time the law of preferential right was legislated the purpose of the law was to give all creditors equal rights. The purpose of this master’s thesis is to analyze the law in force and unravel whether the purpose of the law has been fulfilled or not. If a deviation has been made I will decide whether it can be justified. Since 1st of January 2004 the preferential right regarding taxes has been abolished. Since then the claims of the Government do not have any preferential right. Wages still have a preferential right. Since the law of the Governmental wage guarantee was legislated the Government now pays the workers claims and then take over the preferential right regarding wages. When a company has gone bankrupt there is a possibility to apply recovery in order to bring back property to the bankrupt’s estate Regarding the Government’s claims regarding taxes, recovery is prohibited. There is a regulation in the criminal code called favouritism of creditors which is related to the rules of recovery. The criteria in order to break this regulation are the same as regarding the rules of recovery. This leads to that if a debtor pays the Government the debtor does not break the regulation in the criminal code. In addition to this the Government has an opportunity to receive payment by using the regulation called the legal representative’s responsibility. This regulation means that the legal representative of a company is obliged to pay the company’s taxes if the company is not able to. By this I draw the conclusion that the purpose of the law of preferential right has not been fulfilled. By looking at the regulations I come to the conclusion that the Government has an advantage that no other creditor will be able to achieve. The workers are the only creditors, despite the Government, who are guaranteed payment through the Governmental wage guarantee. This is a deviation which, according to me is justified because of the fact that workers have a greater need for protection than other creditors. There is also a need to have a division in the law of preferential right because every claim has arisen in a different way. The advantage of the Government is, according to me, not justified because this leads to the fact that the Government is the only creditor except workers who is considered being in need of protection. / Vid instiftandet av FRL var syftet med lagen att alla borgenärer skulle ha lika rätt. Syftet med min uppsats är att utreda gällande rätt för att avgöra om FRL: s syfte blivit uppfyllt. Om avsteg från lagens syfte skett skall jag dessutom avgöra om dessa varit motiverade. Den 1 januari 2004 avskaffades förmånsrätten för skatter och avgifter. Därefter övergick statens skattefordringar till att bli oprioriterade fordringar. Fortfarande föreligger förmånsrätt för lönefordringar. Efter instiftandet av den statliga lönegarantin betalar staten arbetstagarnas lönefordringar och inträder därefter i arbetstagarnas ställe avseende förmånsrätten. I en konkurs finns möjlighet att tillämpa återvinning för att föra tillbaka tillgångar till konkursboet. För statens fordringar avseende skatter och avgifter finns det ingen möjlighet till återvinning utan för dessa fordringar föreligger ett återvinningsförbud. I nära relation till återvinningsreglerna finns en bestämmelse i BrB, mannamån mot borgenärer. Kriterierna för att dömas för mannamån mot borgenärer är desamma som för att kunna återvinna en betalning till konkursboet. Detta innebär att en betalning till staten inte kan leda till mannamånsbrott. Därutöver har staten en möjlighet att erhålla betalning genom ett ställföreträdaransvar vilket återfinns i SBL. Detta betalningsansvar drabbar ett företags företrädare vid uteblivna skattebetalningar. Min slutsats är att syftet med FRL inte blivit uppfyllt. En sammanvägning av de olika lagreglerna leder till en slutsats att staten har en fördel som ingen annan borgenär kommer att uppnå. Arbetstagarna är den enda borgenär utöver staten som är garanterad betalning genom lönegarantin. Detta är enligt min uppfattning ett avsteg som är motiverat av den anledning att arbetstagare har ett högre skyddsvärde än vad till exempel leverantörer eller staten har. Uppdelningen i FRL mellan olika förmånsrätter är nödvändig eftersom fordringar tillkommit på olika sätt. Däremot anser jag att de avsteg som görs från FRL: s syfte vad gäller statens fördelar inte är motiverade eftersom det leder till att staten är den enda borgenär utöver arbetstagarna som har ett skyddsvärde.

The increase in international trade creates a growing number of disputes between parties from different countries. International arbitration is the most preferred mechanism to solve disputes in international trade. If the failing party does not voluntarily comply with the award, the successful party must apply for recognition and enforcement of the award in order to obtain the remedies. Since China is one of the major business markets in the world, several of the companies committed to arbitral procedures are likely to have assets in China. This means that, if a party fails to honour an award, an enforcement procedure may begin within a Chinese court. The enforcement procedures in China are said to be insufficient and not to comply with international standards. International conventions and treaties provide for a high level of security in the recognition and enforcement procedure of the arbitral award. The most used and important instrument for recognition and enforcement is the United Nations Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards of 1958, to which China as well as Sweden are Contracting States. According to the Convention, an international arbitral award may only be refused under certain grounds laid down in the Convention. An analysis of the legal situation in China confirms that there are problems associated with the enforcement of arbitral awards. These problems are not, however, connected with the concept of international arbitral awards, but rather with the entire judicial system in China. Even though an enforcing party can do little to overcome these problems, certain measures can be taken in order to ease the enforcement procedure.

I denna uppsats utreds varumärkesrättens tillämpning på domännamnstvister i USA och Norden. Frågan om denna tillämpning är enhetlig med den traditio-nella varumärkesrätten, och om denna traditionella rätt är tillräcklig eller lämp-lig för att hantera domännamnstvister, belyses. Det grundläggande syftet inom både nordisk och amerikansk varumärkesrätt är skyddandet av konsumenter genom förhindrandet av användning av förväx-lingsbart varumärke, och skyddandet av det upparbetade värdet i välkända va-rumärken. Trots rättsenhetlighet inom dessa två läror har USA också utvecklat en lära om initial intresseförväxling, vilket inte finner någon motsvarighet i Norden. Denna lära fokuserar på risken för en förväxling före köpet som skingras innan detta genomförs. Domännamn finnes vara lätta att registrera och ha en särskiljande funktion lik-nande varumärkens. Detta har lett till ett antal domännamnstvister i främst USA, men även Danmark har haft flertalet dylika tvister. I Norge och Sverige har domstolarna endast behandlat ett fåtal domännamnstvister. Kollisioner mellan domännamnsregistrerare och varumärkesinnehavare uppstår på grund av dessa båda företeelsers likhet i särskiljnings- och identifierings-funktion. Antalet tvister ökar då både varumärken och domännamn har en stor och ökande vikt i dagens samhälle både ekonomiskt och ideellt. I rättspraxis kring domännamnstvister har ofta varumärkesinnehavare tillmätts ett långtgående skydd vilket bör ses som en utvidgning av deras rätt jämfört med praxis i verkliga världen. Domstolarna har ibland bortsett från väsentliga krav uppställda i lagtexten samt från hur Internets flyktiga natur påverkar lämp-ligheten i tillämpningen av vissa läror. För att få en mer korrekt och lämplig praxis bör viss ny lagstiftning skapas, men viktigast är en korrekt tillämpning av traditionell varumärkesrätt. / In this paper it is investigated if the trade mark laws application on domain name disputes in the U.S. and Nordic correspond with the traditional trade mark law. The question if this doctrine is enough and suitable for domain name disputes are also illuminated. The fundamental purpose within both Nordic and American trade mark law is the protection of consumers by the prevention of use of confusing trade marks, and the protection of the worked up value in famous trade marks. De-spite a large unity in these two doctrines the U.S. has also developed an initial interest confusion doctrine which has no correspondence in the Nordic. This doctrine focuses on the risk of a pre-sale confusion dispelled before the pur-chase is conceived. Domain names are easy to register and has a distinctive function similar to trade marks function. This fact has led to an amount of domain name disputes in foremost the U.S., but Denmark has also faced several disputes of that kind. In Norway and Sweden the courts have been faced with only a few domain name disputes. Collisions between domain name registrars and trade mark holders come up due to these both phenomenons’ similarity in distinction and identification function. The amount of disputes concerning domain names are increasing be-cause both trade marks and domain names play an important and increasing role in today’s society both economically and idealistically. In the domain name case law the trade mark holder often has apportioned an extensive protection which should be considered as an expansion compared with their rights in the real world. The courts have occasionally disregarded es-sential requirements in the trade mark acts and how the volatile nature of Internet influences the appropriateness in the application of some doctrines. For a more correct and adequate praxis some new legislation need to be founded, but most important is to applicate the trade mark law correct.

Det finns många små och medelstora familjeägda aktiebolag i Sverige och delägare i dessa företag har en stark anledning att skydda sina ägarpositioner i företaget mot oönskade förvärv från nya ägare. Familjemedlemmar har ofta investerat privat förmögenhet i företaget och både äger aktier och arbetar vanligen i företaget vilket innebär att dessa i högre grad än andra är beroende av dess resultat. Delägare i dessa företag önskar i de flesta fall att ägandet kvarstannar inom familjen och att ett framtida skifte till den yngre generationen genomförs. Under företagets livstid kan ett antal situationer och komplikationer inträffa i vilket ett skydd mot oönskade förvärv är motiverat. En ägare kan önska avyttra sin ägarandel, genomgå en äktenskapsskillnad eller plötsligt avlida. Denna uppsats utreder gällande rätt vid skydd av ägarpositioner i små och medelstora familjeägda aktiebolag. Mer specifikt utreds rättsläget huruvida delägare, genom avyttringsbegränsningar, kan erhålla ett tillräckligt starkt skydd mot oönskade aktieförvärv. Ytterligare ett syfte är att ge vissa synpunkter om skyddet av ägarpositioner de lege ferenda. Aktier är enligt ABL 4 kap. 7 § fritt överlåtbara men genom avyttringsbegränsningar i bolagsordningen och aktieägaravtal kan ägare begränsa aktiers fria omsättning. Begränsningar enligt bolagsordningen följer ABL och är bindande för företaget till skillnad mot aktieägaravtal som endast binder aktieägare enligt avtalsrättsliga regler. Skyddet kan förstärkas genom familjerättsliga fång såsom äktenskapsförord och testamente. Vad för slags skydd som delägare i små och medelstora familjeföretag bör upprätta är individuellt och beroende av det enskilda företaget respektive delägares unika situation. Skydd av ägarpositioner i dessa företag är inte tillräckligt starkt vilket föranleds av att ABL saknar flexibilitet och valfrihet och eftersom ABL är tillämplig för alla aktiebolag. Det är svårt att tillgodose samtliga företag med ett tillfredsställande skydd mot oönskade förvärv och därför bör en särskild bolagslag de lege ferenda upprättas för privata aktiebolag. I denna bolagslag skall aktier inte vara fritt överlåtbara och utgöra särskild egendom per automatik. Det skulle innebära ett starkt grundläggande skydd genom en del tvingande bestämmelser och föredras framför att förenkla regelverket i ABL. Skyddet skall kunna ändras med samtliga ägares samtycke med undantag för tvingande regler. En slags ”oberoendeklausul” kan förslagsvis infogas i lagen som upprätthåller många av fördelarna med förbehållen tillåtna enligt bolagsordningen i ABL varför dessa förbehåll kan överges, alternativt modifieras. Aktieägaravtalets betydelse torde förhoppningsvis minska genom en bolagslag eftersom många av dessa skydd bör omfattas av bolagslagen. Skyddet av ägarpositioner skulle med säkerhet förstärkas genom en bolagslag i vilket små och medelstora företags särskilda skyddsbehov tillgodoses. Denna lag torde bidra till ett bättre företagsklimat vilket främjar vårt näringsliv samtidigt som godtrosförvärv och osäkerheten kring tredjemans bundenhet bortfaller.