Abstract Air pollution is a major concern in urban areas of developing countries as a result of industrial expansion and increased vehicular ownership, and in most households due to solid fuel use and garbage burning at home. Urban poverty is also widespread in developing countries, and besides perpetuating household air pollution (HAP), it has also meant hazardous occupational choices such as street vending by the urban poor. The epidemiologic evidence linking HAP exposure with adverse pregnancy outcomes is very limited. Research on the health effects of street vending is also scarce with its relationship with fetal growth still unexplored in spite of women dominating this venture. This project assessed the effects of HAP practices and ambient air pollution exposure on fetal growth and gestational duration, and elaborated the role of environmental exposures in the influence of socioeconomic deprivation on pregnancy endpoints. The project comprised an epidemiologic study, and a qualitative and quantitative synthesis of evidence. A cross-sectional study of 1,151 mothers-infant pairs accessing postnatal services at the Korle Bu Teaching Hospital in Accra (n = 592), and the four main health facilities in Cape Coast (n = 559) was conducted. Information on socioeconomic characteristics and activity patterns of mothers, and characteristics of the indoor and outdoor environment were collected in a structured questionnaire. Birth weight and gestational age was retrieved from hospital records. PUBMED, Ovid MEDLINE, SCOPUS and CINAHL databases were searched for studies investigating HAP exposure and pregnancy outcomes for the review. Multivariate modeling adjusting for confounders resulted in a 243g (95% CI: 496, 11) reduction in birth weight and 41% (risk ratio [RR] = 1.41; 95% CI: 0.62, 3.23) increased risk of low birth weight (LBW) for use of charcoal. Garbage burning was associated with a 195% (RR = 2.95; 95% CI: 1.10, 7.92) increased risk of LBW. The meta-analysis indicated an 86.43g (95% CI: 55.49, 117.37) reduction in birth weight and a 35% (summary-effect estimate [EE] = 1.35; 95% CI: 1.23, 1.48) increased risk of LBW for solid fuel use. Increased risk of other pregnancy endpoints with use of solid fuels was also noted in the meta-analysis. Moderate street vending activity and high traffic density in the vending area jointly resulted in 84% (RR = 1.84; 95% CI: 1.05, 3.24) and 29% (RR = 1.29; 95% CI: 0.68, 2.46) increased risk of LBW and preterm birth, respectively. Evidence of the effects of maternal socioeconomic disadvantage on pregnancy outcomes was noted, with HAP especially substantially mediating the observed effects. Interventions for mitigating the effects of solid fuel use on health call for eliminating barriers to the adoption of cleaner fuels and educating women about behavioral changes required to minimize exposure. Government should also extend their social safety net programs to pregnant women engaged in hazardous occupations to enable them give up or minimize the number of hours in the work. / Tiivistelmä Ilmansaasteet ovat merkittävä huolenaihe kehitysmaiden urbaaneilla alueilla teollisuuden ja ajoneuvoliikenteen lisäännyttyä sekä useimmissa kodeissa biomassan, hiilen ja jätteiden polttamisen takia. Urbaani köyhyys on kehitysmaissa laajamittaista, ja sisäilman saasteongelmien pahentamisen lisäksi se johtaa vaarallisiin ammatinvalintoihin, kuten kadulla tapahtuvaan myyntityöhön. sisäilman saasteiden ja sikiön kehityshäiriöiden välisistä yhteyksistä on kuitenkin vain vähän epidemiologisia todisteita. Katumyynnin terveysvaikutuksia on tutkittu hyvin vähän, eikä sen yhteyttä sikiön kasvuun ole tutkittu, vaikka naiset ovat vahvasti edustettuna kyseisellä alalla. Tässä väitöskirjassa tarkasteltiin sisäilman saasteiden ja ympäristön ilmansaasteiden vaikutuksia sikiön kasvuun ja raskauden kestoon sekä tutkittiin ympäristöaltisteiden roolia sosioekonomisen vähäosaisuuden vaikutuksessa sikiön kehityshäiriöihin. Väitöskirja koostuu epidemiologisesta tutkimuksesta sekä määrällisestä ja laadullisesta aineiston yhdistelemisestä. Poikittaistutkimukseen osallistui 1151 äiti-vauvaparia, jotka olivat käyneet synnytyksen jälkeen neuvolassa Korle Bu -opetussairaalassa Accrassa (n=592) tai jossain Cape Coastin neljästä pääsairaalasta (n=559). Kyselyllä kerättiin tietoa äitien sosioekonomisesta asemasta ja liikkuvuudesta sekä sisä- ja ulkoympäristön ominaisuuksista. Vauvojen syntymäpainot ja syntymähetken raskausviikot selvitettiin sairaaloiden rekistereistä. Sisäilman saasteille altistumista ja sikiön kehityshäiriöitä tarkastelevia tutkimuksia etsittiin katsausta varten PUBMED-, Ovid MEDLINE-, SCOPUS- ja CINAHL-tietokannoista. Monimuuttujamallissa, jossa sekoittavat tekijät oli huomioitu, puuhiilen käyttö pienensi syntymäpainoa 243 grammaa (95 % luottamusväli: 496-11) ja lisäsi alhaisen syntymäpainon riskiä 41 % (riskisuhde [RR]=1.41; 95 % luottamusväli: 0.62-3.23). Roskien polttoon liittyi 195 % (RR=2.95; 95 % CI: 1.10-7.92) suurentunut alhaisen syntymäpainon riski. Meta-analyysissä biomassan ja hiilen poltto alensi syntymäpainoa 86.43 grammaa (95 % luottamusväli: 55.49-117.37) ja lisäsi alhaisen syntymäpainon riskiä 35 % (meta-analyysin riskisuhde =1.35; 95 % luottamusväli: 1.23-1.48). Meta-analyysissä havaittiin myös muita biomassan ja hiilen polttoon liittyviä kohonneita kehityshäiriöiden riskejä. Kohtalainen katumyyntiaktiivisuus ja korkea liikennetiheys myyntialueella yhdessä lisäsivät matalan syntymäpainon riskiä 84 % (RR=1.84; 95 % luottamusväli: 1.05-3.24) ja ennenaikaisen syntymän riskiä 29 % (RR=1.29; 95 % luottamusväli 0.68-2.46). Tutkimuksessa todettiin äidin matalan sosioekonomisen aseman vaikutus sikiön terveyteen ja havaittiin, että sisäilman saasteiden rooli havaittujen vaikutusten välittäjänä on merkittävä. Biomassan ja hiilen polttamisesta aiheutuvien terveysuhkien ehkäisemiseksi puhtaampien polttoaineiden käyttöä tulisi edistää ja naisia tulisi valistaa siitä, kuinka ilmansaasteille altistumista voi vähentää. Hallituksen tulisi sosiaalitukien avulla mahdollistaa vaarallisissa ammateissa työskentelevien, raskaana olevien naisten työajan minimointi.

The purpose of this dissertation was to understand how genetics, socioeconomic status (SES), and lifestyle factors influence the development of age-related macular degeneration (AMD), glaucoma, and diabetic retinopathy in an adult population in Dallas County. Two hundred fifty-three older adults participated in this study as the sample. Crosstabulation and binary logistic regression were utilized to analyze the data. Results indicated a disparity among participants' test scores, visual health status, and perceptions of their visual impairment and highlighted the fact that many seniors are not educated about age-related retinal disorders. Furthermore, variables reaching statistical significance were consistent with the literature included race/ethnicity, age, having a family history of both AMD and diabetes, frequency of eye exams, and level of education. The results not consistent with the literature as affecting visual health included health insurance, access to health care, body weight, and smoking status. Recommendations for future study included applied research focusing on determining risk factors, raising awareness, educating, and providing early detection of these diseases among low to middle income Caucasian, African American, and Hispanic older adults.

A la croisée de la sociologie des relations interethniques et des minorités et de la sociologie urbaine, cette thèse étudie dans leurs dimensions sociales et spatiales les recompositions, expansions et contractions des frontières entre groupes placés en situation minoritaire. Elle s’appuie sur les résultats d’une enquête qualitative, ethnographique et comparative menée au sein de trois marchés de la périphérie de Nice où se concentrent des individus minorisés et marginalisés. D’une part, elle analyse les rapports sociaux qui se jouent dans le fonctionnement et l’appropriation de ces espaces urbains marchands par des acteurs en situation minoritaire. Elle montre quels sont les effets concrets de telles appropriations sur le partage de l’espace, leurs relations, mais aussi les liens entre eux et leur environnement. D’autre part, elle décrit les formes d’expression publique des identités telles qu’elles se donnent à voir dans les interactions marchandes et non marchandes en cherchant à comprendre comment ces espaces de commerce orientent la façon dont les relations interethniques s’organisent dans la coprésence. En mettant en évidence l’intersection des différentes formes de domination en actes au sein de ces espaces, la thèse montre ainsi les variations de l’expérience minoritaire. / Combining the sociological study of interethnic relations and minorities and urban sociology, this thesis focuses on the reconfigurations, expansions and contractions of the boundaries between groups placed in a minority situation. This thesis draws on the results of qualitative, ethnographic and comparative investigation carried out in three marketplaces located on the outskirts of Nice where these minority groups and marginalized people are concentrated. First, this thesis studies the social relations at stakes in the functioning and appropriation of these marketplaces by minority groups. It allows to understand how this appropriation appears in the sharing of space, their relation and the links between them and their environment. Secondly, the thesis describes the various forms identities are expressed during market and non-market interactions, trying to understand how these commercial spaces orientate the way interethnic relations are organized in co-presence. By highlighting the intersection of the different forms of domination in action within these spaces, the thesis thus explores the multiplicity of minority experience.

This study examined temporal trends and socioeconomic differences in alcohol use and drunkenness among Swedish 15-year-old students between 2001/02 and 2017/18. Data were obtained from the Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) study conducted in 2001/02, 2005/06, 2009/10, 2013/14 and 2017/18 (n ≈ 1500/year). Socioeconomic status (SES) was measured using two alternative indicators: educational aspirations and family affluence. Logistic regression models were used to investigate the relationships between drinking measures and SES indicators. The results showed a significant decline in alcohol use and drunkenness among Swedish 15-year-old students from 2001/02 to 2017/18. Educational aspirations almost consistently statistically negatively predicted regular alcohol use and drunkenness. Family affluence only had a weak effect on adolescent drinking behavior with a tendency for less affluent students reporting less alcohol use and drunkenness. Trend analyzes within the subgroups indicated that the downward trend was mirrored in all SES groups, but it was not equally steep in all groups. The decrease was generally weaker among students with lower educational aspirations but stronger among students from less affluent families. This study suggests that different aspects of SES may influence adolescent drinking in opposing directions. In future efforts aimed at reducing alcohol use and drunkenness among adolescents, students with lower educational aspirations should be the target population.

Denna studie syftade till att undersöka grad av alla tre dimensioner sammanslagna och respektive dimension av psykopati bland unga och hur det relaterade till antisocialt beteende samt om relationerna kvarstod oberoende av ungas sociala förmåga och föräldrars SES. Urvalet bestod av 1731 unga varav 912 pojkar och 819 flickor i åldern 11-13 år med medelålder 12,2. Psykopatiska personlighetsdrag definierades med tre dimensioner som var grandiositet - manipulation, brist i empati - flackt känsloliv och impulsivitet - behov av omväxling. Resultaten visade att pojkar uppvisade högre grad av psykopatiska personlighetsdrag jämfört med flickor. Psykopatiska personlighetsdrag och antisocialt beteende korrelerade i hög utsträckning med varandra. Majoriteten av korrelationerna var högre bland pojkar än flickor separat. Sambanden kvarstod mellan psykopatiska personlighetsdrag och antisocialt beteende vid kontroll för ungas sociala förmåga respektive föräldrars SES för totala urvalet samt separat för pojkar respektive flickor. Slutsatsen som drogs var att psykopatiska personlighetsdrag och antisocialt beteende var relaterade till varandra. Denna relation var oberoende av ungas sociala förmåga och föräldrars SES. Diskussioner om praktiska implikationer förs och direktiv för framtida forskning ges. / The main purpose of this study was to investigate the extent of psychopathic personality traits among youths and how it related to antisocial behaviour and whether the relationships remained independent of youth’s social skills and parental SES. The study consisted of 1731 participant, where 912 of them were boys, and 819 were girls at age 11-13 with mean age 12,2. The psychopathic personality traits consist of three different dimensions; Grandiose-Deceitful, Callous-Unemotional, and Impulsivity-Need for Stimulation. The results showed that the psychopathic dimensions were significantly higher among boys than girls. We also examined the relationship between the psychopathic dimensions and conduct problems for the total sample, which showed a high positive significant correlation. These correlations were tested for both genders separately, which showed indications of boys having a higher correlation than girls. Furthermore, the result indicated that the relationship remained between psychopathic dimensions and conduct problems in controlling for social skills respective socioeconomic status for the total sample and separately for boys and girls. The conclusion drawn that psychopathic personality traits and conduct problem were related to each other. This relationship was independent of young’s level of social skills and parental level of SES. Discussions of practical implications and directives for future research are provided.

Text in English / Although the participation of students at institutions of higher learning in South Africa is increasing, student dropout remains a challenge. Student dropout is influenced by a variety of factors, some of which are psychological. The purpose of this study was to investigate the role of adjustment and sense of belonging on students’ intention to dropout of university. The study comprised of three distinctive objectives. The first objective of the study was to examine the relationship between sense of belonging, adjustment and students’ intention to drop out of university. Second, the study sought to test whether sense of belonging and adjustment would predict students’ intention to dropout of university. Finally, the study sought to test whether students’ socioeconomic status would moderate the relationship between sense of belonging and intention to dropout of university. The sample for the study consisted of 955 students enrolled for undergraduate programmes for the 2018 academic year. Pearson correlation, multiple linear regression and moderation analysis were used to test hypotheses stated in the study. The findings revealed a statistically significant relationship between sense of belonging, adjustment and the intention to dropout. The findings also confirmed that sense of belonging and adjustment predict the intention to dropout. However, the study could not prove the hypothesis that socioeconomic status moderates the relationship between sense of belonging and the intention to dropout. Nevertheless, the findings of this study highlighted the importance of psychological factors on undergraduate students’ academic success. Thus, universities should consider initiating programmes that will address students’ psychological challenges throughout their enrolment at university to improve student retention and rates of graduation. / Psychology / M.A.(Psychology with Specialization in Research Consultation)

I designed an explanatory sequential mixed-method study to explore the relationship between leadership practices, collective teacher efficacy (CTE), and educational outcomes of low SES students in an open school system. Four data sources were analyzed: K-5 student Developmental Reading Assessment (DRA) results of 1,170 students, Collective Teacher Belief Scale (CTBS) survey to measure CTE perceptions of 48 teachers, focus group interviews composed of a stratified sample of 11 K-5 teachers, and two one-on-one principal interviews. The study took place in two elementary schools in north Texas during the 2020-2021 school year. A Spearman's rank-order correlation analysis indicated that the relationship between CTBS scores and student reading scores was mixed. While one school showed a positive association between CTE and the reading data of low SES students, the other school showed a weak correlation between the variables. The quantitative data indicated that CTBS scores did not independently explain reading achievements at both campuses. The data also showed that while teachers had a large effect size on the reading performance of low SES students, as measured through a Cohen's d for paired sample t-test, achievement gaps continued to widen. Two themes emerged through a grounded theory approach when principals described their sensemaking and framing process: many variables and teamwork. In a complex open system, school principals must consider the many needs of teachers and students before enacting reform efforts. To achieve ambitious goals, school principals promote teamwork and help develop supportive structures to assist teachers and students. Furthermore, the theme of support emerged when teachers described their CTE perceptions concerning their principal's leadership actions. The overall data suggest that leadership practices directly impact CTE levels and indirectly impact student performance. When teachers felt supported, CTE levels increased, but when teachers felt overwhelmed or failed to see how school and district mandates support teaching and learning efforts, CTE levels dropped.

Background:  Previous research have found that different factors have associations with the level of function. Only few studies investigate the population of older adults with movement disabilities.  Objective: The objective was to investigate how childhood socioeconomic status, education, gender, rural/urban living, and cohort affects functioning in late adulthood for people with movement disabilities. Six hypotheses were tested.  Method: The sample was selected from the Swedish Adoption/Twin Study of Aging, and consisted of n=69 older adults with self-reported movement disability, mean age 78 years. They have all participated in motor function testing, which is an objective measure of function. Mann-Whitney U test, Kruskal-Wallis H test and binary logistic regressions were performed.  Result: No significant difference were found between low/high childhood socioeconomic status, low/high education, men/women, rural/urban, and early/late cohort. Associations were found between age, urban living, later cohort and poorer functional level.  Conclusion: The results indicate that the older adults from Sweden aging with a movement disability might have equal opportunity to develop and maintain functional ability. The participants all have a movement disability and it is possible that the disability is the main factor determining the functional level.

Studiens syfte var att undersöka om nudging kan påverka individers ekonomiska riskbenägenhet och om effekten av nudging som beteendeförändrings teknik skiljer sig beroende på upplevd ekonomisk knapphet under livsloppet. Studien har utgått från en kvantitativ metodologi och design. Metoden innehåller ett standardiserat frågeformulär med ett väl beprövat instrument som mäter ekonomisk knapphet och ett pre-experiment för att kunna mäta deltagarnas riskbenägenhet. Urvalet bestod av ett studenturval (N= 304) och studien utfördes på studenter vid Högskolan i Skövde. Nudging är ett verktyg som kan användas för att ge människor möjlighet att kunna fatta mer medvetna beslut och därmed undvika ett automatisk tänkande. Tidigare forskning visar att människor ofta har svårt att ta rationella beslut när de ställs inför komplexa val. I sådana situationer tenderar människor att använda sig av ett heuristiskt tänkande och därmed appliceras ett automatiskt tankesätt. Individer som upplever eller har upplevt ekonomisk knapphet har svårare att ta långsiktiga ekonomisk beslut. Forskningar har visat att en uppväxt under låga socioekonomiska förhållanden kan leda till systematiska skillnader i beslutfattande. Vilket kan resultera i att dessa individer gör mer riskbenägna och impulsiva val. Forskarna ville undersöka om effekten av nudging som beteendesförändringsteknik kan påverka riskbenägenhet. Studiens resultat visade att upplevd ekonomisk knapphet under livsloppet inte hade någon större effekt på deltagarnas ekonomiska riskbenägenhet. Det fanns en tendens som visade att effekterna av nudging som beteendeförändringsteknik skiljer sig beroende på upplevd ekonomisk knapphet under livsloppet, dock var resultatet ej statistisk signifikant. / The purpose of this study was to investigate whether nudging can impact individuals'economic risk taking and whether the effect of nudging as a behaviour change technique differs dependingon perceived scarcity during the life cycle.The study has been based on a quantitative methodology and design. The method contains a standardized questionnaire with an established instrument that measures scarcity and a pre-experiment to be able to measure the participants' risk taking. The sample consisted of a student sample (N= 304) and the study was performed on students at the University of Skövde. Nudging is a tool that can be used to give people the opportunity to make more conscious decisions and thereby avoid automatic thinking. Previous research shows that people often find it difficult to make rational decisions when faced with complex choices. In such situations, people tend to use heuristic thinking and thereby an automatic way of thinking is applied. Individuals who experience or have experienced scarcity find it more difficult to make long-term economic decisions. Research has shown that growing up in low socio-economic conditions can lead to systematic differences in decision-making, which can result in these individuals making more risky or impulsive choices.The researchers wanted to investigate whether the effect of nudging as a behaviour change technique can affect risk taking. The results of the study showed that perceived scarcity during the life cycle had no major effecton the participants' economic risk taking. There was a tendency that showed that the effects of nudging as a behaviour change technique differs depending on perceived scarcity during the life cycle, however, the result was not statistically significant.

This diploma thesis Family environment and adolescent alcohol consumpiton deals with a relationship between four dimensions of family environment and alcohol consumption of sixteen years old adolescents. These four dimensions are leisure time, family structure, parenting style and socioeconomic status. In the theoretical part family influence on child's development is described and then socialization process through which family influence child's development is delimited. Further, the relationship between family environment and alcohol consumption is discussed and then four dimensions of family environment are characterized in context of alcohol consumption. Relationship between family environment and alcohol consumption was studied using mixed research design. In the main quantitative part of the thesis general relationships between chosen dimensions of family environment and alcohol consumption indicators were examined using data from European School Project on Alcohol and Other Drugs (ESPAD) from the year 2007. Then a typology of adolescent alcohol consumers was made. Results of this part continued in the qualitative part. There ten semistrctured interviews were made to examine deeper connections and direction of relationships discovered in the quantitative data analysis. This part was primarily...