Thesis (MDF)--Stellenbosch University, 2011. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The study undertakes an extensive literature review and analysis of the South African Government’s venture towards adopting accrual accounting in the national and provincial spheres of government. The venture is benchmarked against similar ventures of New Zealand, Australia and the United Kingdom. The experiences of other countries are used only to the extent needed to shed further light on certain issues and do not constitute a meaningful portion of the study. The study examined whether the accruals basis of accounting will increase the value of the system of accounting in the broader strategy to improve service delivery in the national and provincial spheres of government in South Africa. Two subsidiary issues are also examined: whether the departments are ready and able to cope with a change to accrual accounting in the foreseeable future; and the risks inherent in the change The main observations of the study are that the Government of South Africa (GoSA) faces a serious service delivery crisis. The government has identified that a broad package of reforms, including an improved system of accounting, is needed to address the service delivery dilemma. The change from the current modified cash to the accruals basis of accounting in the national and provincial spheres of government forms part of this solution. The change to accrual accounting is aimed at producing additional and more sophisticated information that will be used to improve decision making and ultimately the quality and cost of government services. This move is consistent with the requirements of the PFMA, which requires the government’s accounting system to operate within the GRAP framework, an accrual accounting format. The paper finds that although accrual accounting is a superior model in theory, in practice there is an increasing sense of disillusionment with the outcomes of accrual accounting, hence an accompanying decline in the interest shown by governments across the world in changing to this format. In all three countries studied there is evidence that accrual accounting reform has underperformed relative to the original expectations. Causes of this scenario are linked to the adoption of a model of accrual accounting that is not properly configured for the nuances of the public sector, poor implementation and in some cases the unrealistic expectation of seeing results too soon after implementation. These countries have had to take additional measures to obtain value, some of which nevertheless remain elusive. All three countries nevertheless cited improved asset management as the prime benefit of the accrual accounting system. It is noted that, when the information produced through the system of accrual accounting is used effectively, it ought to result in a more effective, efficient and transparent use of resources – a precondition for improving service delivery. The paradox is that accrual accounting is used in the South African municipalities and public entities, yet, the majority of these institutions have dismal service delivery records. This illustrates that accrual accounting in and of itself will not make a significant impact on the quality of service delivery and that there is a need for an intensive programme of control, governance and skills improvement alongside the accrual accounting reform. In the final analysis the study finds that there is a paucity of evidence showing the causality between the adoption of accrual accounting and improvements in service delivery; in the main because accrual accounting was introduced within a broader set of reforms and it has not been possible to isolate its impact. It is also observed that the national and provincial departments are underprepared for accrual accounting and that there are significant risks to implementing the change in the foreseeable future. Given this scenario, the hypothesis that the accruals basis of accounting is a superior model for addressing the service delivery challenges in the GoSA cannot be confirmed. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die studie onderneem 'n omvattende literatuurstudie en analise van die Suid-Afrikaanse Regering se onderneming tot die goedkeuring van Toevalling rekeningkunde in die nasionale en provinsiale sfere van die regering. Die onderneming is teen soortgelyke ondernemings van Nieu-Seeland, Australië en die Verenigde Koninkryk vergelyk. Die ervarings van ander lande word slegs gebruik in die mate wat nodig is om meer lig te werp op sekere kwessies en maak nie 'n betekenisvolle gedeelte van die studie uit nie. Hierdie studie ondersoek of die toevalling rekeningkundige grondslag die waarde van die rekeningkundige stelsel van toename in die breër strategie om dienslewering in die nasionale en provinsiale sfere van die regering in Suid-Afrika sal verbeter. Twee addisionele kwessies word ook ondersoek om te bepaal of departemente binne die afsienbare toekoms gereed en in staat sal wees om aan te gaan met 'n verandering aan die Toevalling rekeningkunde asook die risiko's wat inherent in die verandering is sal kan hanteer. Die belangrikste waarnemings van die studie is dat die Regering van Suid-Afrika 'n ernstige dienslewering krisis in die gesig staar. Die regering het vasgestel dat 'n breë pakket van die hervorming, insluitend 'n verbeterde stelsel van rekeningkunde, nodig is om die dienslewering dilemma aan te spreek. Die verandering van die huidige rekeningkundige stelsel na die toevalling basis van rekeningkunde in die nasionale en provinsiale sfere van die regering vorm deel van hierdie oplossing. Die verandering aan die toevalling rekeningkundige is gemik op die vervaardiging van addisionele en meer komplekse inligting wat gebruik sal word om besluitneming en uiteindelik die kwaliteit en koste van die regering se dienste te verbeter. Hierdie stap is in ooreenstemming met die vereistes van die PFMA, wat vereis dat die regering se rekeningkundige stelsel te bedryf binne die raamwerk van die GRAP, 'n toevalling rekeningkundige formaat. Die ondersoek het bevind dat hoewel Toevalling rekeningkunde 'n uitstekende model in die teorie is dat daar in die praktyk 'n toenemende gevoel van ontnugtering met die uitkomste van toevalling rekeningkundige is en die belangstelling wat deur die regerings regoor die wêreld in die verandering na hierdie formaat ‘n beduidende afname toon. In al drie lande wat ondersoek is, is daar bewyse dat die hervorming van die boekhoudsysteem onder presteer het met betrekking tot die oorspronklike verwagtinge wat gestel was. Die oorsake hiervan is gekoppel aan die aanvaarding van 'n model van die toevallingsgrondslag rekeningkundige wat nie behoorlik ingestel vir die nuanses van die openbare sektor, swak uitvoering en in sommige gevalle die onrealistiese verwagting dat resultate vinnig na die implementering gesien sal word. Hierdie lande het bykomende maatreëls ingestel om waarde te verkry maar sommige van die waardes bly steeds ontwykend. Al drie lande is dit eens dat verbeterde besluitneming, die primêre voordeel van die boekhoudsysteem, die kritiese insette bly vir verbeterde dienslewering. Dit is bekend dat wanneer die inligting wat deur die stelsel van toevalling rekeningkundige geproduseer word, doeltreffend gebruik word, dit tot 'n meer effektiewe, doeltreffende en deursigtige gebruik van hulpbronne behoort te lei - 'n voorvereiste vir die verbetering van dienslewering. Die paradoks is dat toevalling rekeningkunde in die munisipaliteite en openbare entiteite gebruik word, maar die meerderheid van hierdie instellings het 'n swak dienslewering rekord. Dit illustreer dat toevalling rekeningkunde in en van opsigself nie 'n beduidende impak op die gehalte van dienslewering sal maak nie en dat daar 'n behoefte vir 'n intensiewe program om beheer, bestuur en vaardighede te verbeter bykomend tot die oplopende rekeningkundige hervorming moet wees. Die studie het bevind dat daar 'n gebrek aan bewyse tussen die aanneming van toevallingrekeningkundige en die moontlike verbeterings in dienslewering met die stelsel is. In hoofsaak is die boekhoudsysteem binne 'n breër stel hervormings ingestel en kan die moontlike impak daarvan nie geisoleer word nie. Dit is ook waargeneem dat die nasionale en provinsiale departemente swak is in die toevallingrekeningkundige stelsel en dat daar beduidende risiko's vir die implementering van die verandering in die afsienbare toekoms. In lig van hierdie opsomming kan die hipotese nie bevestig word dat die toevallings rekeningkunde as ‘n beter model bevestig is om die dienslewering uitdagings aan te spreek in die Regering.

Syfte: Trots striktare redovisningsregler så fortsätter ledningen i ett flertal företag att resultatmanipulera. Forskare har sett att fokus endast skiftat från en metod till en annan. Incitament för målföretag att resultatmanipulera vid fusioner och förvärv kan variera beroende på valet av betalningsmetod vid affären då det kan ses som avgörande om risken att påverka det framtida resultatet delas med förvärvaren eller inte. Syftet med studien är därför att undersöka om målföretag har använt sig av kassaflödesmanipulering eller onormala periodiseringar året innan affären genomfördes och om betalningsmetoden påverkat valet av resultatmanipuleringsmetod. Metod: Studien antar ett positivistiskt perspektiv med en hypotetisk-deduktiv ansats. Vi har använt ett kvantitativt tillvägagångssätt där sekundärdata inhämtats från databasen Thomson Reuters Eikon och Thomson Reuters Datastream. En longitudinell design har använts och urvalet har slutligen analyserats i multipla regressionsanalyser med hjälp av IBM SPSS. Resultat & slutsats: Studien visar att målföretag innan förvärvet använder sig av kassaflödesmanipulering som metod för att påverka resultatet när betalningen sker med kontanter oavsett kontext. Ledningens benägenhet att använda den resultatmanipuleringsmetoden framför onormala periodiseringar ligger i linje med tidigare studier men vi kan också visa att målföretag inte tycks sakna nödvändig tid eller motiv att resultatmanipulera. Förslag till fortsatt forskning: Studier som tittar på hur förvärvsprocessen påverkar möjligheterna för målföretaget att resultatmanipulera, speciellt om målföretag aktivt försöker dra ut på förvärvsprocessen i syfte att manipulera resultatet innan företagsförvärvet. Vi skulle också önska oss studier som visar huruvida resultatet kan generaliseras på andra marknader än den europeiska. Uppsatsens bidrag: Ur ett teoretiskt perspektiv bidrar denna studie till ökad kunskap om resultatmanipulering av målföretag vid företagsförvärv. Ur ett praktiskt perspektiv så kan studien vara av intresse för företag som planerar framtida företagsförvärv då betalningsmetoden visat vara avgörande för förekomsten av resultatmanipulering. Även revisorer och beslutsfattande organ kan ha nytta av studien vid utformning av redovisningsstandarder då studien stärkt tidigare forskning om val av resultatmanipuleringsmetod. / Aim: The management of several companies still apply earnings management despite stricter accounting standards. Research has shown focus is shifting from one method to another. An incentive for target companies to apply to earning management at mergers and acquisitions may depend on the method payments in the takeover. At that time it can be viewed as decisive if the risk to influence the future result is divided between the acquirer firm or not. The aim with this study is therefore to examine if the target companies have used real activity manipulation or accrual manipulation in the year prior to the acquisition - relative to previous years and whether the method payments in the takeover influence the choice or not. Method: The study is based on the philosophy of positivism with a hypothetical deductive approach. The strategy adopted is quantitative, using a longitudinal design and secondary data is collected from Thomson Reuters Eikon and Thomson Reuters Datastream. The sample is processed in IBM SPSS and analyzed in multiple regression analysis. Result & Conclusions: This study shows the target company in the year prior to the acquisition uses real activity manipulation to manage earnings when the payment is in cash regardless of context. Management prefers real activity manipulation over accrual manipulation supported by previous studies, but we can also show that the target company does not seem to lack the necessary time or incentive to manipulate earnings. Suggestions for future research: Suggestions for future research may look at how the acquisition process affects the ability of the target company to manipulate the results, especially if the target companies are actively trying to stall the acquisition process in order to manipulate the outcome before the acquisition. Obtaining other studies showing whether results can be generalized to other markets than Europe would be beneficial to us. Contribution of the thesis: From a theoretical perspective, this study contributes to the knowledge of earnings management of target firm prior to the acquisitions. From a practical perspective, the study can be of interest to companies planning future acquisitions on which payment method proved to be crucial for the existence of the earnings manipulation. Even accountants and decision making bodies can find it useful to have the study into account in the design of accounting standards when the study reinforced previous research on the election earnings management method.

Esta pesquisa buscou investigar a anomalia dos accruals nos retornos de cinco países da América Latina (Argentina, Brasil, Chile, México e Peru), bem como observar se os aspectos institucionais impactaram nos retornos anormais de accruals dos países. Para tanto, foram analisadas séries temporais para cada país, agrupadas em carteiras de accruals e carteiras de setor, para os modelos CAPM, 3-fatores e 4-fatores, incluindo o fator accruals e observados os retornos anormais das séries, avaliando-os por meio da estatística GRS e pelas estatísticas de teste do procedimento de Fama e MacBeth. Em seguida, foram construídos modelos de dados em painel para o período de 2004 a 2017, em que as variáveis dependentes foram os retornos anormais de accruals, resultantes das séries temporais mensais de cada uma das empresas, e as variáveis independentes foram os fatores institucionais característicos dos países e as variáveis a nível de empresa. O estudo esperava que, se confirmados os retornos anormais de accruals nas séries temporais da América Latina, os fatores específicos de cada país contribuiriam para explicar as diferenças de retornos anormais existentes entre eles. Os resultados confirmaram a presença de retornos anormais em todos os países da amostra, em todos os modelos e o comportamento dos accruals explicou parte dos retornos. Além disso, as variáveis institucionais dos países estudados impactaram os retornos anormais de accruals. Por fim, esta pesquisa fornece evidências quanto a generalização da anomalia dos accruals, enriquecendo a literatura sobre países ainda pouco explorados e de importância econômica crescente, além de prover indícios sobre os efeitos dos aspectos institucionais na anomalia dos accruals na América Latina. / This research aimed to investigate accrual anomaly of returns from five countries in Latin America (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Mexico and Peru), and to observe whether institucional factors impacted the accruals abnormal returns in these countries. For that purpose, time series for each country were built, and grouped in accruals and industry portfolios for Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM), 3-factor and 4-factor models, including the accrual factor (ACC). Abnormal returns were detected through the GRS statistics and the Fama and MacBeth procedure. Then, panel data models were used considering the period from 2004 to 2017, in which the dependent variables was the accrual abnormal returns resulted from the individual monthly series for each analyzed company; and the independent variables were the country-specific institutional factors and the company-level variables. Considering previous literature, in this study, it was expected that, if the accrual abnormal returns were confirmed in the time series from Latin America, the specific factors from each country would contribute to explain the differences between the returns. The results confirmed the presence of abnormal returns in every country from the sample and in all models, plus, the behavior from accruals partially explains returns. Furthermore, the institutional variables of countries influence the accruals abnormal returns. Finally, this research provides evidence over the generalization of accruals anomaly, contributing to literature on poorly studied, but economically relevant countries, besides providing signs regarding effects of institutional factors effects on the anomaly in Latin America

Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-25T18:39:47Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Wilson Xavier da Silva.pdf: 989302 bytes, checksum: 69c3e34d75e2ec5c10369956093e7e92 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-05-10 / The financial statements provide the financial position of an entity and, when prepared, current uniform accounting methods and criteria should be followed and equity changes must be recorded according to the accrual schedule of accounting which requires that revenues, costs and expenses must always are simultaneously recorded in accounting when they are correlated. The reconciliation process of accounting standards, which began in Brazil in 2005 with the creation of the Accounting Pronouncements Committee - CPC, depends more on the counter s judging criteria and professional ability to interpret for accounting records. The revenue is recognized when it is probable that future economic benefits will flow to the entity and these benefits can be reliably measured, otherwise you should not promote the registration of such revenues. The main objective of this research was to determine how and at what time, qualified general hospitals, the Sorocaba regions recognize the revenue for services rendered but not yet billed, analyzing in this way, the observance of the accrual schedule. The survey consisted of 32 general hospitals in Sorocaba, with a sample accessibility that totaled 10 hospitals. This is a research approach with both qualitative and quantitative, descriptive of the type developed by a field survey using the questionnaire as an instrument of data collection, applied with the accounting profession. The results show that the hospitals surveyed negatively affect the competence regime in relation to revenue recognition, leading to the conclusion that its financial statements are affected by the failure of the accrual schedule and that there is no uniformity in the financial statements. A proposed accounting, accounting practices to meet, presented following the end of this dissertation / As demonstrações contábeis fornecem a situação patrimonial e financeira de uma entidade e, ao serem elaboradas, devem observar métodos e critérios contábeis uniformes no tempo, para registrar as mutações patrimoniais segundo o regime de competência que determina que as receitas, os custos e despesas sejam registrados pela Contabilidade, sempre simultaneamente quando se correlacionarem, observando o fato gerador. Com o processo de harmonização das normas contábeis, iniciado no Brasil em 2005 com a criação do Comitê de Pronunciamentos Contábeis (CPC), os registros contábeis passaram a depender mais do critério de julgamento profissional e da capacidade de interpretação do contador. A receita é reconhecida quando for provável que benefícios econômicos futuros fluam para a entidade e esses benefícios se tornem confiavelmente mensurados, caso contrário não se deve promover o registro de tais receitas. O principal objetivo deste estudo, mais especificamente da pesquisa, foi verificar como, e em qual momento, os hospitais qualificados como gerais, da região de Sorocaba reconhecem as receitas, analisando a observância ou não do Regime de Competência. A pesquisa foi composta por 32 hospitais gerais da região de Sorocaba, com uma amostra por acessibilidade que totalizou 10 hospitais. Trata-se de uma pesquisa com abordagem tanto qualitativa quanto quantitativa, do tipo pesquisa descritiva, desenvolvida por meio de uma pesquisa de campo com utilização do questionário como instrumento de coleta de dados, aplicada junto a profissionais de contabilidade. Os resultados evidenciaram que em 7 hospitais pesquisados não é aplicado o regime de competência, no que concerne ao reconhecimento das receitas, pois basicamente o registro é feito no momento em que o faturamento é enviado (por meio da emissão da nota fiscal) levando à conclusão de que não há uma uniformidade nos registros das receitas. Uma proposta de contabilização, visando atender as práticas contábeis, segue apresentada ao final desta dissertação

預算赤字的多寡通常被一般大眾視為衡量政府財政態勢的指標之一，但近年來有許多學者批評大部分人所認知的預算赤字（歲出大於歲入），無法真實表達政府之財政態勢，因而發展出「資產負債表法」，認為真正之預算赤字應重新定義為每年淨值（總資產減總負債）之變化，此法不但能充分揭露政府有關真實負債的資訊，亦能反映是否符合跨代間之公平(inter-period equity)。 　　就政府會計學理和先進國家的發展趨勢而言，最能充分表達資產負債表內容之會計基礎為應計基礎，故本研究擬在此理論基礎下，以民國87~89年度之台北縣政府決算報表為例，改編其資產負債表。 　　按應計基礎試算台北縣政府之民國87~89年度之未計「應付退休金負債」淨值，分別約為4,336億、3,442億、3,552億元，明顯大於現行修正應計基礎下之淨值92億、58億、-38億，其主要原因是將其資本支出和投資列入資產負債表中。由可處分之淨值變化及考慮潛在退休金負債後，可推估民國88年度約有預算赤字893.5億，在88下半年及89年度則較上年度約增加189.17億。

No description available.

Introduktion/Problembakgrund: Earnings management (EM) är ett problem för både det enskilda företaget och samhället. EM innebär att företagsledningen manipulerar resultatet i syfte att vilseleda externa intressenter. Konsekvenserna av EM är ett minskat förtroende för den finansiella rapporteringen, vilket resulterar i en ineffektiv kapitalallokering. Tidigare studier i Nya Zeeland har konstaterat att sammansättningen av fastighetsportföljen påverkar benägenheten till EM. Däremot går resultatet inte att generalisera i andra länder, eftersom det finns skillnader i lagstiftningen. Det är därför av intresse att genomföra en studie för svenska börsnoterade fastighetsföretag. Det behövs för att skapa ett ramverk, vilket kan hjälpa externa intressenter att förstå, upptäcka och förebygga beteenden som ger upphov till EM. Syfte: Studiens syfte är att undersöka hur fastighetsportföljen påverkar benägenheten till EM hos svenska börsnoterade fastighetsföretag. Vidare har studien även som syfte att kartlägga sammansättning av företagens fastighetsportföljer. Estimera EM för fastighetsföretagen och studera hur fastighetsportföljen påverkar benägenheten till EM. Studien har även som syfte att undersöka hur EM påverkar fastighetsföretagens finansiella rapportering i avseende på tillförlitlighet och relevans. Teori: De teorier som använts i studien baseras på tidigare EM-studier, orsaken är att vi avser att använda de mest relevanta teorierna för att besvara studiens problemformulering. Studiens teoretiska referensram omfattas av; 1) EM 2) informations asymmetri, 3) earnings quality, 4) principal-agent teorin, 5) stewardship teorin, 6) signaleringsteorin och 7) prospect-teorin. Vidare beskrivs fastighetsmarknaden. Metod/Data: Studien baseras på en kvantitativ metod, en deduktiv ansats och ett objektivistiskt synsätt. Vi har inhämtat data från finansiella databaser och från fastighetsföretagens finansiella rapporter. I de finansiella rapporterna har vi manuellt inhämtat data för sammansättningen av fastighetsportföljerna utifrån fastighetskategori och fastighetsregion under åren 2005-2013. Vidare har vi skattat två kategorier av EM, accruals management (AM) och real activities manipulation (RAM). Vi har sedan skattat fastighetsportföljens inverkan på benägenheten till EM. Resultat/analys: Skattningarna av AM och RAM är i likhet med tidigare studier. Vidare tenderar fastighetsportföljen utifrån fastighetskategori att uppvisa flertal signifikanta resultat i jämförelse med fastighetsportföljen som baseras på fastighetsregion. Sammansättningen av företagens fastighetsportföljer tenderar att utgå ifrån en fastighetskategori i en fastighetsregion, vilket innebär att fastighetsföretagen tenderar att förvalta, äga och utveckla en viss fastighetskategori i en viss region. Slutsatser: I studien har vi kommit fram till att fastighetsportföljen tenderar att påverkar benägenheten till EM. Det innebär att traditionella teorier inom EM även bör beakta att sammansättningen av fastighetsportföljen påverkar benägenheten till EM. Utifrån resultatet konstaterar vi att tillförlitlighet och relevans i den finansiella rapporteringen minskar. Studiens resultat kan förklaras utifrån fastighetsrelaterade marknadsfaktorer.

No description available.

Esta pesquisa buscou investigar a anomalia dos accruals nos retornos de cinco países da América Latina (Argentina, Brasil, Chile, México e Peru), bem como observar se os aspectos institucionais impactaram nos retornos anormais de accruals dos países. Para tanto, foram analisadas séries temporais para cada país, agrupadas em carteiras de accruals e carteiras de setor, para os modelos CAPM, 3-fatores e 4-fatores, incluindo o fator accruals e observados os retornos anormais das séries, avaliando-os por meio da estatística GRS e pelas estatísticas de teste do procedimento de Fama e MacBeth. Em seguida, foram construídos modelos de dados em painel para o período de 2004 a 2017, em que as variáveis dependentes foram os retornos anormais de accruals, resultantes das séries temporais mensais de cada uma das empresas, e as variáveis independentes foram os fatores institucionais característicos dos países e as variáveis a nível de empresa. O estudo esperava que, se confirmados os retornos anormais de accruals nas séries temporais da América Latina, os fatores específicos de cada país contribuiriam para explicar as diferenças de retornos anormais existentes entre eles. Os resultados confirmaram a presença de retornos anormais em todos os países da amostra, em todos os modelos e o comportamento dos accruals explicou parte dos retornos. Além disso, as variáveis institucionais dos países estudados impactaram os retornos anormais de accruals. Por fim, esta pesquisa fornece evidências quanto a generalização da anomalia dos accruals, enriquecendo a literatura sobre países ainda pouco explorados e de importância econômica crescente, além de prover indícios sobre os efeitos dos aspectos institucionais na anomalia dos accruals na América Latina. / This research aimed to investigate accrual anomaly of returns from five countries in Latin America (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Mexico and Peru), and to observe whether institucional factors impacted the accruals abnormal returns in these countries. For that purpose, time series for each country were built, and grouped in accruals and industry portfolios for Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM), 3-factor and 4-factor models, including the accrual factor (ACC). Abnormal returns were detected through the GRS statistics and the Fama and MacBeth procedure. Then, panel data models were used considering the period from 2004 to 2017, in which the dependent variables was the accrual abnormal returns resulted from the individual monthly series for each analyzed company; and the independent variables were the country-specific institutional factors and the company-level variables. Considering previous literature, in this study, it was expected that, if the accrual abnormal returns were confirmed in the time series from Latin America, the specific factors from each country would contribute to explain the differences between the returns. The results confirmed the presence of abnormal returns in every country from the sample and in all models, plus, the behavior from accruals partially explains returns. Furthermore, the institutional variables of countries influence the accruals abnormal returns. Finally, this research provides evidence over the generalization of accruals anomaly, contributing to literature on poorly studied, but economically relevant countries, besides providing signs regarding effects of institutional factors effects on the anomaly in Latin America

The aim of this diploma work is to describe the accounting methods and procedures based on an accrual basis and characterize the effect of these methods on financial statements. In the first part of this diploma work are described the accounting method based on an accrual basis. The work is mainly focused on the following topics: transitional items of assets and liabilities, reserves, correcting the value of property items and deferred tax. In the second part are assessed the correctness of the methods applied in the particular company and evaluated the impact of accounting methods on reported profit of the last five years. Further are written up internal accounting directives based on the accrual basis.