<p> The cellular, molecular, and genetic mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) are not well understood. The purpose of this thesis was to address the hypothesis that microbial infection is important for the development and/or progression of COPD through investigation of how cigarette smoke alters the response to a bacterial challenge in a mouse model of cigarette smoke-exposure. To this end, in chapter 2 of this thesis we tested the hypothesis that cigarette smoke-exposure attenuates the ability of alveolar macrophages to sense microbial antigens through innate pattern recognition receptors. The central point of this study was the observation that alveolar macrophages isolated from cigarette smoke-exposed mice had attenuated expression of typical inflammatory cytokines following microbial stimulation. Building on this main observation, in chapter 3 we questioned what the consequences of this would be to an in vivo bacterial challenge with nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae. We demonstrated that cigarette smoke-exposure resulted in chronic inflammation, this inflammation was exacerbated following bacterial challenge, and perhaps most importantly, the nature of the inflammatory response was altered. Interestingly, an observation from the study in chapter 3 indicated that exacerbated inflammation in cigarette smoke-exposed mice may be beneficial for clearance of the bacteria, but may come at the expense of damage to the lungs. Consequently, in chapter 4 we questioned the strain and dose/ frequency stringencies of cigarette smoke-exposure on the observation of accelerated bacterial clearance. We demonstrated a role for antibodies in bacterial clearance. Collectively, this thesis provides insight into our understanding of COPD by demonstrating that cigarette smoke-exposure alters the pulmonary immune/ inflammatory response to a microbial challenge, which has a detrimental impact on the lungs. </p> / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

Alveolar macrophages comprising up to 95% of the pulmonary alveoli, are the gate-keepers of homeostasis by ensuring efficient tissue function through metabolizing excessive surfactant and phagocyting inhaled day-to-day and innocuous pathogens and particles, without triggering an immune response. Despite that, they are capable of orchestrating a very well-balanced immune response upon invasion of pathogens. These embryonic-derived cells are capable of self-renewal and therefore maintain themselves in the lungs throughout adult life, with minimal contribution from the circulating monocytes. This self-renewal capacity is attained intrinsically by maintaining low levels of transcription factors MafB and cMaf, and extrinsically through two main cytokines, namely GM-CSF secreted by alveolar epithelial type II cells, and TGFb secreted by AMs themselves in an autocrine manner. However, in inflammatory conditions such as acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), depletion of AM pool and upregulation of MAFB among lung macrophages have been reported. Keeping in mind the role of transcription factors MafB and cMaf in inhibiting proliferative capacity of macrophages; we hypothesized that this depletion is due to upregulation of MafB and hence the suppression of enhancer regions of self-renewal genes in AMs. To investigate the role of MafB and its compensatory partner cMaf in ARDS, we have established a mouse model of ARDS using oropharyngeal instillation of LPS in WT and MafB/cMaf double-knockout (Maf-DKO) mice. Alongside, the molecular mechanisms of the effect of LPS on AMs was investigated ex-vivo. The obtained results have clearly shown that ex-vivo, LPS inhibits proliferation of AMs in a dose dependent manner, and induces apoptosis significantly. Regain of proliferative potential of LPS-stimulated AMs was evident upon TLR4 inhibition, and MyD-88 was shown to be the dominant adaptor downstream of TLR4 (as opposed to TRIF). Both WT and DKO AMs responded to LPS stimulation within 2 hours, by switching from OXPHOS to glycolysis, which accounts for their efficient pro-inflammatory phenotype once activated. Upon activation, MafB and cMaf were upregulated after 48 hours and the inhibition of AM proliferation was shown to be Maf-independent. Similarly, depletion of AM pool was shown to be Maf independent invivo, evident by similar kinetics of AM numbers in WT and DKO at different timepoints upon LPS stimulation. However, several findings indicated potential advantage of Maf-deficiency in tissue regeneration; this includes: 1) higher number of Ly6C+ monocytes and their earlier differentiation into resident AMs, 2) lower degree of tissue damage revealed by H&E staining, 3) higher number of alveolar epithelial type II cells, 4) significantly higher levels of cytotoxicity pointing towards cellular turnover, and 5) significantly higher levels of SP-D and thus its antiinflammatory effects. In a quest for investigating factors which could enhance proliferative potential of AMs and ultimately neutralize the inhibitory effect of LPS, the impact of TGFb and ActivinA was studied. I have shown that TGFb and to a higher extend ActivinA boost the proliferation rate of AMs, ex-vivo. The autocrine effect of these cytokines was validated by blocking signal transduction through inhibition of SMAD2/3, which resulted in a significant increase in doubling time of AMs. Interestingly, Inhba was shown to be significantly upregulated in AMs, as opposed to TGFb. The importance of ActivinA was further demonstrated by its direct inhibition and the resulting reduction in growth rate of AMs. On the contrary to the significant role of these cytokines in enhancing the growth rate of AMs ex-vivo, they could rescue AM proliferation under the effect of LPS. In conclusion, I have demonstrated that LPS inhibits AM proliferation in a dose dependent and Maf-independent manner. Furthermore, neither TGFb nor ActivinA could rescue proliferation of LPS-stimulated AMs. Although Maf-deficiency was not shown to be beneficial during the inflammatory phase of ARDS, due to the fact that both WT and DKO AMs were equally depleted at the peak of inflammation, multiple data indicated potential advantage of Maf deficiency during resolution phase.

Submitted by Luciana Ferreira (lucgeral@gmail.com) on 2014-11-24T12:08:05Z No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Renato Ivan de Ávila Marcelino - 2013.pdf: 1307159 bytes, checksum: 353b525742af80ec75afbd4c58f79c96 (MD5) license_rdf: 23148 bytes, checksum: 9da0b6dfac957114c6a7714714b86306 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Luciana Ferreira (lucgeral@gmail.com) on 2014-11-24T14:01:41Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Renato Ivan de Ávila Marcelino - 2013.pdf: 1307159 bytes, checksum: 353b525742af80ec75afbd4c58f79c96 (MD5) license_rdf: 23148 bytes, checksum: 9da0b6dfac957114c6a7714714b86306 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2014-11-24T14:01:41Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Renato Ivan de Ávila Marcelino - 2013.pdf: 1307159 bytes, checksum: 353b525742af80ec75afbd4c58f79c96 (MD5) license_rdf: 23148 bytes, checksum: 9da0b6dfac957114c6a7714714b86306 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-04-19 / Hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)] is a toxic metal that triggers toxicity events in the body, penetrating cell membranes and increasing reactive oxygen species (ROS). These products, in turn, damage cellular macromolecules, inhibiting their functions and enhancing cell death via apoptosis. Therefore, it has been suggested that the use of antioxidants can minimize the damage induced by this metal. In this context, the Eugenia dysenterica DC. (Myrtaceae) plant species, native from Cerrado biome, has been studied because it presents high levels of polyphenols, substances with known antioxidant potential. Moreover, it is traditionally used in folk medicine and presents food and economic importance. In this work, in vitro and in vivo effects of the Eugenia dysenterica DC. leaf hydroalcoholic extract (EDE) on AMJ2-C11 cell line and mice exposed to Cr(VI), respectively, were investigated. In parallel, the antioxidant activity of EDE was also investigated by the methods of 2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH•) free radical capturing and co-oxidation of β-caroteno/linoleic acid. In vitro, pre-treatment of AMJ2-C11 cells with EDE (20, 40 ou 80 μg/mL) followed by exposure to Cr(VI) (100, 250 ou 500 μM) resulted in a concentration-dependent increase of cell viability. Furthermore, mechanistic studies of flow cytometry (cell cycle, annexin V, active caspases, ROS and rhodamine 123) and cell morphology showed that the EDE protected the cells from apoptosis triggered by Cr(VI), and reduced the ROS intracellular levels and prevented the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential. Additionally, significant antioxidant potential of EDE was observed. In vivo, prophylactic treatment for 10 days with EDE (50, 100 ou 200 mg/kg/day) and subsequent exposure to a sublethal dose of Cr(VI) (30 mg/kg) induced a decrease in Cr levels in the kidneys, liver and plasm, besides preventing liver and kidney changes caused by this metal. Moreover, treatment of animals with EDE (50, 100, 125, 200, 250 ou 500 mg/kg/day) followed by exposure to a lethal dose of Cr(VI) (50 mg/kg) induced an increase in the survival of exposed animals, especially at the doses of 50, 100 and 125 mg/kg. Therefore, the present study demonstrated that the EDE showed in vitro and in vivo effect against Cr(VI)-induced oxidative toxicity. / O cromo hexavalente [Cr(VI)] é um metal tóxico capaz de desencadear eventos toxicológicos no organismo, pois ultrapassa as membranas celulares e promove o aumento da produção de espécies reativas de oxigênio (ERO). Esses produtos, por sua vez, danificam as macromoléculas celulares, inibindo suas funções e favorecendo a morte celular por apoptose. Em vista disso, acredita-se que o uso de antioxidantes pode minimizar os danos induzidos por este metal. Nesse contexto, a espécie vegetal Eugenia dysenterica DC. (Myrtaceae), nativa do bioma Cerrado, tem sido estudada por apresentar altos níveis de polifenóis, substâncias que reconhecidamente têm potencial antioxidante. Ademais, é tradicionalmente utilizada na medicina popular e apresenta importância alimentar e econômica. Assim, neste trabalho, os efeitos in vitro e in vivo do extrato hidroalcoólico das folhas da Eugenia dysenterica (EED) sobre a linhagem celular AMJ2-C11 e em camundongos expostos ao Cr(VI), respectivamente, foram investigados. Em paralelo, a atividade antioxidante do EED também foi investigada através dos métodos de captura do radical livre 2,2-difenil-1-picrilidrazila (DPPH•) e da co-oxidação do β-caroteno/ácido linoléico. In vitro, o pré-tratamento das células AMJ2-C11 com EED (20, 40 ou 80 μg/mL) seguido de exposição ao Cr(VI) (100, 250 ou 500 μM) resultou em um aumento da viabilidade celular, de forma concentração dependente. Além disso, estudos mecanísticos utilizando citômetro de fluxo (ciclo celular, anexina V, caspases ativas, ERO e rodamina 123) e de morfologia celular evidenciaram que o EED protegeu as células da apoptose desencadeada pelo Cr(VI), além de reduzir os níveis intracelulares de ERO e impedir a perda do potencial de membrana mitocondrial. Adicionalmente, foi observado relevante potencial antioxidante do EED. In vivo, o tratamento profilático por 10 dias com EED (50, 100 ou 200 mg/kg/dia) e subsequente exposição a uma dose subletal de Cr(VI) (30 mg/kg) promoveu redução dos níveis de Cr nos rins, fígado e plasma, além de prevenir alterações hepáticas e renais causadas por esse metal. Além disso, o tratamento dos animais com EED (50, 100, 125, 200, 250 ou 500 mg/kg/dia) seguido de exposição a uma dose letal de Cr(VI) (50 mg/kg) promoveu um aumento da sobrevida dos animais expostos, principalmente nas doses de 50, 100 e 125 mg/kg. Por conseguinte, o presente estudo demonstrou que o EED

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Récemment reconnus comme cancérogènes certains pour l'homme par l’IARC, la pollution atmosphérique et les particules fines (PM₂.₅) peuvent être inhalées et pourraient être retenues au niveau pulmonaire ou passer dans la circulation systémique. Ceci peut causer ou renforcer de nombreuses pathologies auxquelles les personnes âgées sont souvent plus sensibles. Cette thèse s’inscrit dans une démarche d’identification des processus impliqués dans la modulation du potentiel cancérogène des PM₂.₅, en lien avec l’âge ou le statut tabagique. Les particules ont été collectées à Dunkerque, agglomération présentant des influences maritimes mais également caractérisée par des activités industrielles et un trafic automobile importants. Pour évaluer l'influence de l'âge, des lymphocytes sanguins prélevés chez 90 patients issus de trois classes d'âge (25-30, 50-55 et 75-80 ans) ont été exposés ex vivo à des PM₂.₅ d’origine urbaine. Les lymphocytes isolés ont été exposés aux PM₂.₅ pendant 72 heures, avant de mesurer l'activité télomérase et la modulation d'expression de gènes tels que P16INK4A et MGMT. Les PM₂.₅ entraînent des variations de l'activité télomérase et de la longueur des télomères dans toutes les tranches d'âge indifféremment. L’expression du gène P16INK4A est significativement augmentée avec l'âge après exposition aux PM₂.₅. L'âge augmenterait l'expression du gène MGMT après exposition aux particules, en diminuant le niveau de méthylation de son promoteur uniquement dans le groupe des patients les plus âgés. Concernant le rôle du statut tabagique, 26 lavages broncho-alvéolaires ont été réalisés chez des patients fumeurs et non-fumeurs. Les macrophages issus de ces prélèvements ont été mis en culture avec des cellules épithéliales bronchiques BEAS-2B, avant exposition aux PM₂.₅ (3 et 15 µg/cm², 72 h). L’activité télomérase et la longueur des télomères varient après exposition aux PM2.5 et le statut tabagique modifie ces paramètres dans les cellules BEAS-2B et les macrophages alvéolaires. La méthylation des promoteurs et l’expression des gènes P16INK4A et MGMT ne sont pas modifiées dans les cellules BEAS-2B, alors que dans les macrophages alvéolaires les particules induisent l’expression de ces gènes par une diminution de la méthylation de leurs promoteurs. Le statut tabagique fumeur semble au contraire accroître la méthylation et limite l’expression de ces deux gènes. En conclusion, il apparaît que l’échantillon de PM₂.₅ étudié peut induire ex vivo plusieurs lésions décrites dans les étapes d’initiation et de promotion de la cancérogenèse broncho-pulmonaire. L’âge et le tabagisme sont susceptibles de moduler les effets toxiques des particules. Alors que les symptômes du cancer du poumon apparaissent seulement à une étape avancée de la maladie, nos résultats pourraient aider à la découverte de nouveaux marqueurs de diagnostic précoce permettant ainsi d’améliorer la survie. / Recently recognized as carcinogenic to human by IARC, air pollution and fine particulate matter (PM₂.₅) can be inhaled and could be retained into the lung or reach the systemic circulation. This can cause or worsen many diseases for which the elderly are often more sensitive. The PhD objective corresponds to the identification of the mechanisms of action involved in the modulation of carcinogenic potential of PM₂.₅, in connection with age or smoking status. PM₂.₅ were collected in Dunkerque, a French seaside city characterized by important industrial activities and heavy motor vehicle traffic. In order to estimate the influence of age, blood lymphocytes sampled from 90 patients from age classes (25-30, 50-55 and 75-80 years old) were ex vivo exposed to PM₂.₅ during 72 hours, before evaluation of telomerase activity and gene expression modulation of P16INK4A and MGMT. PM₂.₅ modulated telomerase activity and telomeres length in all age groups without any influence of age. P16INK4A gene expression increased significantly with age after exposure to PM₂.₅. Age could enhance MGMT gene expression after exposure to particles by decreasing the level of promoter methylation in the oldest group. Regarding the role of smoking status, 26 broncho-alveolar lavage were performed in smoker and non-smoker people. Macrophages were cultured with bronchial epithelial BEAS-2B cells before PM₂.₅ exposure (3 or 15µg/cm²; 72h). The telomerase activity and telomere length vary after exposure and the tobacco modify these parameters in BEAS-2B cells and alveolar macrophages. Methylation of P16INK4A and MGMT genes promoters and their expression are not modified in BEAS-2B cells. In alveolar macrophages, particles lead to a decrease of methylation of P16INK4A gene promoter. The smoking status seems also to increase methylation and to down-regulate expression of these two genes. In conclusion, it seems that the studied PM₂.₅ sample can induce ex vivo modifications described in the initiation and promotion of lung carcinogenesis. The age and smoking status may modulate the toxic effects of particles. Since lung cancer symptoms appear only at an advanced stage, our results could help in proposing new biomarkers of carcinogenesis allowing an early diagnosis to improve survival.

Le « porcine respiratory disease complex » (PRDC) est un trouble multifactoriel dû à une infection simultanée ou séquentielle de divers micro-organismes pouvant intensifier ou prolonger les signes cliniques des porcs. On retrouve dans ce complexe Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae, un des agents initiateurs du PRDC et agent primaire de la pneumonie enzootique (EP) chez les porcs. Streptococcus suis est l’un des agents pathogènes secondaires du PRDC, c’est également un agent pathogène important induisant principalement des méningites, des septicémies et la mort subite des porcelets post-sevrés. Mycoplasma hyorhinis est également l’un des agents pathogènes secondaires du PRDC, et va induire des inflammations sérofibrineuses chez les porcelets. Comme ces trois pathogènes sont retrouvés au sein du PRDC et au niveau des voies respiratoires supérieures des porcs, il pourrait exister un effet positif des mycoplasmes sur la pathogénèse de S. suis. C’est pourquoi différentes expériences in vitro ont été réalisées avec les cellules épithéliales porcines (NPTr), les macrophages alvéolaires porcins (PAMs) et les cellules dendritiques porcines (BM-DCs) qui ont été pré-infectés par les mycoplasmes puis infectés avec S. suis. Il a été observé que la cytotoxicité et l’inflammation des cellules porcines ont été significativement augmentées lorsqu’elles ont été pré-infectées par les mycoplasmes puis infectées par S. suis. Cependant, la pré-infection des cellules n’a pas joué de rôle sur l’adhésion et l’invasion de S. suis, sur la phagocytose et la survie intracellulaire de la bactérie. Cette étude semble montrer que la pré-infection des mycoplasmes pourraient induire un contexte inflammatoire favorisant la pathogenèse de S. suis. / Porcine respiratory disease complex (PRDC) is a multifactorial disorder due to simultaneous or sequential infection with various microorganisms that can intensify or prolong clinical signs in pigs. Included in this complex is Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae, one of the initiating agents of PRDC and the primary agent of enzootic pneumonia (EP) in pigs. Streptococcus suis is one of the secondary pathogens of PRDC and is also an important pathogen, mainly causing meningitis, septicemia, and sudden death in post-weaned piglets. Mycoplasma hyorhinis is also one of the secondary pathogens of PRDC and will also induce serofibrinous inflammation in piglets. As all three pathogens are found in the PRDC and in the upper respiratory tract of pigs there may be a positive effect of mycoplasma on the pathogenesis of S. suis. Therefore, different in vitro experiments were performed with newborn pig tracheal cells (NPTr), primary porcine alveolar macrophages (PAMs) and porcine bone-marrow-derived dendritic cells (BM-DCs) that were pre-infected with mycoplasma and then infected with S. suis. It was observed that cytotoxicity and inflammation of pig cells were significantly increased when they were pre-infected with mycoplasma and then infected with S. suis. However, pre-infection of the cells did not play a role in the adhesion and invasion of S. suis and in the phagocytosis and intracellular survival of the bacteria. This study suggests that pre-infection with mycoplasma may induce an inflammatory context favoring the pathogenesis of S. suis.

Alveolar macrophages (AMs) are lung tissue-resident macrophages that can be expanded in culture, but it is unknown to what extent culture affects their in vivo identity. Here we show that mouse long-term ex vivo expanded AMs (exAMs) maintained a core AM gene expression program, but showed culture adaptations related to adhesion, metabolism and proliferation. Upon transplantation into the lung, exAMs reacquired full transcriptional and epigenetic AM identity, even after several months in culture and could self-maintain long-term in the alveolar niche. Changes in open chromatin regions observed in culture were fully reversible in transplanted exAMs and resulted in a gene expression profile indistinguishable from resident AMs. Our results indicate that long-term proliferation of AMs in culture did not compromise cellular identity in vivo. The robustness of exAM identity provides new opportunities for mechanistic analysis and highlights the therapeutic potential of exAMs.