This diploma thesis focuses on indicators of currency and banking crises and examines their reliability. The analysis is performed on real economic events - the monetary crisis analysiswill be related to the crisis in Russia in 1998 and in the banking crisis we will examine events in Ireland in 2008-2010. In case of both crises we will try to make a strict definition because the economic literature nor any law regulation do not offer any, whereas for time series analysis is the determination of the outbreak and the end of the crisis crucial. We also look at the change in the understanding of the financial crisis, from the concept of monetary, banking and debt crises typical for the end of the last century and gradually transitioning to a comprehensive approach to the financial crisis as a systemic crisis that represents the current direction of economic thought. The main objective is to analyze the reliability of currency crisis and banking crises indicators on the example of selected economic events. We will try to follow the development of indicators within a few years and look for the development trend, predicting the impending problems. There are also described some methodological problems concerning the research of indicators of financial crises. In the end we will have a comparison of both countries and emphasize what they have in common and what is different.

In my graduation theses I deal with the eurozone crisis. This crisis can be seen in relation to the causes of it, as a result of many factors of varying importance - the global financial and economic crisis, the State lavishness, the construction of EMU, etc. Eurozone crisis can however be also seen in the inability of states to agree on the future appearance of the eurozone. In the first two chapters I analyze the first mentioned approach, namely financial and debt crisis with regard to their expensiveness. In detail I attend to interconnection of banking and debt crisis and the role of the ECB. In the second part I come to the principal point of my work, another approach to the crisis, namely the attitude of Germany to address problems of EMU. Germany therefore, that as the largest economy of EMU it forms it the most, but also carries the largest share of costs. I will analyze both the priorities of Germany, and his approach to promoted measures from the fiscal compact to Eurobonds. Eventually, through an analysis of the attitudes of actors in Germany - the German Government, the political opposition, the constitutional court, the Bundesbank, the German academics, public opinion - I come to a conclusion that the position of Germany is divided, however, at least for political representation I can not yet speak of fundamental contradictions. But it seems that the German population begins to differ in this way from their political representatives. The future will show us how serious this discrepancy will be and what results will it bring.

[pt] Em 2003, o Congresso Nacional aprovou uma lei regulamentando o crédito consignado, o que causou um grande impacto no crédito a pessoas físicas. No capítulo 1, forneço evidências que o crédito consignado teve um efeito pequeno, mas não desprezível, nas escolhas ocupacionais. Em particular, eu encontro evidências que o crédito consignado está associado positivamente com escolhas ocupacionais com características de empreendedorismo. Esse efeito é mais forte em indivíduos que estão numa faixa etária onde dificilmente será um aposentado e residem em famílias com aposentados e pensionistas, o que sugere a existência de mecanismos de transferência intra-familiares. No Capítulo 2, eu apresento evidências de que o crédito consignado tem um efeito pequeno, mas não desprezível, nos indicadores de saúde dos idosos. Em particular, o crédito consignado está: 1) negativamente associado com as taxas de mortalidade nas faixas etárias de 60 a 69 anos e 70 a 79 anos. 2) negativamente associado com indices de dificuldades físicas. Esse efeito é maior em famílias com menor renda. 3) positivamente associado com um número de consultas médicas por ano. Usando uma abordagem diff-diff, encontro evidência de que um possível mecanismo é um aumento de gastos com saúde nas famílias com maior proporção de ganhos oriundos de aposentadorias nas suas rendas. / [en] In 2003, the Brazilian Congress passed a law regulating payroll lending, which had a large impact on consumer lending (Coelho et al [2011]). In Chapter 1, I present evidence that that payroll lending had a small but non-negligible impact on occupational choice. In particular I find that payroll lending is positively associated with more entrepreneurial-like occupations. The effect is stronger for individuals in age ranges unlikely to have retirees in families with retirees or pensioners, suggesting that intra-family transfer mechanisms are operative. In Chapter 2, I present evidence that that payroll lending had a small but non-negligible impact on health outcome for elderly citizens. In particular, we find that Payroll Lending: 1) is negatively associated with death rates on age ranges of 60-69 and 70-79 years old; 2) is associated with less physical disabilities. The effect is stronger for individuals in families with lower incomes; 3) is associated with more medical consultations per year. Using a diff-diff approach, I also find evidence that one possible mechanism is more health care spending in families with more proportion of retirement benefits in their income.

In my thesis I analyse the development of the banking system of Ukraine and the assessment of the concentration level of the banking system in conditions of crisis 2014-2015. The theoretical part is devoted to classification and causes of the banking crisis; also, it describes the historical aspects of crisis formation in Ukraine. The practical part is focused on the evaluation of the financial security level and macroeconomic situation in Ukraine. This part emphasises problems and the specifics of functioning of domestic banks. In addition, it considers the concentration level of the banking market. The analysis performed shows that the banking crisis is the result of accumulated macroeconomic imbalances of the past and present mistakes in the implementation of anti-crisis policy. Currently the efficient functioning of most domestic banks remains at insufficient level.

The Diploma Thesis deals with the banking crisis and aims to account for different approaches to the understanding of the nature of banking crisis. The Thesis further aims to provide answers why the banking crisis are caused and why so far there are no measures that would effectivelly prevent such crisis. At first, the Thesis states the definition of banking with the emphasis on banks as the institutional backbone of the current functioning of the financial system. The Thesis pays specific attention to the characteristics of two basic legal banking instruments, particulary loans and deposits. While acknowledging the loan expansion, the thesis argues the role of regulatory authorities and the limits of their competences in regards to the prevention of crisis. Followingly, the Thesis offers a view on a banking crisis phenomenon with appropriate historical overview outlining the banking crisis in Czechoslovakia in years 1918 to 1939 and after 1989, the loan expension influence on the business cycles and approaches to banking crisis solving in respect to stabilization of the banking system and restructuring of banks. At last but not least, the Thesis sums up the global financial crisis that started as a banking crisis, respectively as a crisis of one segment of the banking market in the United States...

La problématique de la thèse : en quoi les effets de la crise financière et bancaire de 2007-2008 ont influé les comportements de banques et en quoi ces derniers consistent-ils ? Pour ce faire, nous avons montré, d’abord, que le bilan et le compte de résultats sont des outils explicatifs de comportements stratégiques et opérationnels de banques. Vu la responsabilité particulière des banques de grande taille dans cette crise, nous avons exploité les données des 200 premières banques mondiales figurant dans le classement de 2006 (avant crise) et de 2012 (après crise) extraites de la base «The Banker» en utilisant, ensuite, l’analyse factorielle exploratoire pour découvrir les facteurs latents qui influencent leurs comportements dans une logique de statique comparative. Les résultats obtenus montrent que la crise a changé ces comportements. Au plan de comportement stratégique, les banques européennes s’orientent, en 2012, vers le modèle de banque de «détail pur» alors qu’en 2006 elles se répartissaient sur 3 modèles: «détail pur»; «mixtes»; «marché». Pour les banques de l’Amérique du Nord et de l’Asie-Pacifique, déjà spécialisées dans le «détail pur» en 2006, le restent pour 2012. Au plan de comportement opérationnel, les banques européennes passent d’une focalisation sur la rentabilité vers le renforcement de la suffisance de capital. Les banques nord-américaines et de l’Asie–Pacifique, focalisées sur l’activité en 2006, s’orientent sur la rentabilité en 2012. En conclusion, 2 recommandations pour les régulateurs financiers : s’assurer que la tendance vers le modèle de banque de «détail pur» soit de long terme et accorder une attention accrue à la taille du bilan / The thesis problem: how the effects of the financial and banking crisis of 2007-2008 have influenced the behavior of banks and what do they consist of ? To do this, we showed, first, that the balance sheet and income statement are good explanatory tools of strategic and operational behavior of banks. Due to the special responsibility of the large banks in this crisis, we used data of the top 200 global banks listed in the 2006 (pre-crisis) and 2012 (post-crisis) classifications, retrieved from the database "The Banker". We used the exploratory factor analysis to discover the latent factors which influence the banks behaviors, in a comparative static logic. The results show that this crisis has actually changed these behaviors. From the strategic positioning perspective, the trend of the European banks after the crisis is the "retail-funded" banking model. In 2006, the positioning was heterogeneous with a "cocktail" of "retail-funded", "wholesale-funded" and "trading" banks. For the North American and Asia-Pacific banks, which was already specialized in the "retail-funded" in 2006, will remain so for 2012. In terms of operational behavior, European banks pass from a strong focus on profitability, before the crisis, to a reinforcement of capital adequacy, after the crisis. The banks of North America and Asia-Pacific, which were focused on the activity, before the crisis, will give more importance to the profitability after the crisis. In conclusion, two recommendations for the financial regulators : ensure that the trend in matter of strategic positioning of the banks is oriented to the “retail-funded” model and pay special attention to the size of the balance sheet.

一、金融危機的理論模型可分為:1.第一代模型:基本面惡化。2.第二代模型:傳染蔓延效果。3.第三代模型:預期心理效果。 二、台灣發生金融危機的成因為:1.土地投機過深。2.股票持有過多。3.交叉持股，過度融資。4.借殼上市。 三、台灣發生金融危機的後果為: 1.資產價格下跌，影響家計消費。2.經濟成長率下降。3.銀行業逾放比率增加、資產品質惡化、退票比率增加、資產報酬率下降。 四、台灣發生金融危機政府採取的因應對策及其效果為:1.一般性管制。2.選擇性信用管制。3.調降金融業營業稅:降稅所增加的盈餘，幫助銀行沖銷呆帳，降低逾放比率。4.金融業合併:(1)業務同性質很高，將以節省成本為主要目的。(2)官股成分的銀行進行合併。5.展延問題企業本息攤還半年。6.護盤:(1)企業界護盤:釀成母子公司財務危機。(2)財政部成立「股市穩定基金小組」。7.銀行業不動產擔保品需於兩年內處分完畢。8.限制分行設立家數，誘導新銀行承受信用合作社。9.嚴禁抽銀根，以配合政府紓困政策。 五、日本發生金融危機的成因為:1.政界、官員、財界與黑道操縱股價。2.交叉持股，過度融資。3.土地投機過深。4.大藏省及日銀失職。5.決策當局無法適當處理。 六、日本發生金融危機的後果為:1.經濟成長停滯。2.企業部門財務結構惡化、破產家數及債務創新高。3.失業率創新高。4.財政赤字惡化及國民負擔增加。5.金融機構債信評等下降、資本適足性規定與股、匯市重挫導致金融機構惜貸。6.銀行業逾放比率增加、資產品質惡化、資產報酬率下降。7.資產價格下跌，影響家計消費。 七、日本發生金融危機政府採取的因應對策及其效果為: (一)振興景氣方案成效評析:自1992年起推出多次振興經濟方案，惟未進行制度面及供給面結構改革，銀行龐大呆帳問題一再拖延，財政赤字不斷擴大。 (二)租稅政策成效評析: 1997年提高消費稅稅率並廢除特別減稅措施，且增加醫療保險自負額，同時公共投資減少3兆日圓，被認為是振興經濟的絆腳石。 (三)貨幣政策成效評析:貼現率由1993年8月30日的6%逐漸調降至歷史新低點，但寬鬆貨幣政策的效果，幾乎無法發揮。 (四)金融改革成效評析:1.1996年:實施金融大改革，逐步解除金融市場各項管制，期望在2001年可以與紐約、倫敦的金融市場並駕其驅；但卻在1997年中為金融風暴所阻。2.1997年:(1)通過日銀法修正法案，賦予日銀自主性。(2)大藏省改革法案，可下令銀行停止營業，而不再採行事前指導與保護。3.1998年:實施(1)「新外匯化」、「金融系統改革法」、「金融機能安定化法」、「存款保險修正法案」:以公共資金購買特別股方式挹注銀行資本，由於挹注金額過低，且外界對審查過程質疑甚深。(3)實施「金融再生法」:成立「金融再生委員會」，解決問題銀行；同時合併住專管理公司與處理回收銀行:專司負責處理銀行不良債權；惟面臨適任人選不足的問題。同時與大藏省共同管理，故其「獨立」、「專責」的角色亦受到質疑。 (4)實施「金融早期健全法案」:率先對受困的金融機構提供援助。4.1999年:對大型銀行、地方銀行的官方資金投入期限至2001年3月底止，防金融界的過度依賴。5.2000年:成立金融廳，強化金融體系，確保金融管理的透明化，加強與國際合作為職志。 八、台灣與日本金融危機的比較 (一)相同點:1.外債小於外匯存底。2.內債赤字逐漸擴大。3.貿易收支都有盈餘，惟貿易盈餘與國內投資有趨緩的現象，造成經濟成長率下降，股、匯市下跌。4.有產業及資金外移的現象。5.銀行有特權貸放，造成道德危機與逆選擇。 (二)相異點:1.技術層次不同:日本的研發水準有其獨特之處，台灣OEM較多，大都接美、日訂單，受美、日景氣衰退的影響既大且深。2.政治穩定性不同:日本長達近10年的短命內閣，政策前後無法一致性，責任承擔不明，台灣則無此現象。3.佔世界經濟體的地位不同:日本佔世界經濟體第二大，台灣佔世界經濟體第二十一大，所以日本的產能比台灣大。4.工資與地租成本結構不同:日本的工資與地租成本是台灣的2.5倍，所以景氣下滑較早發生，趨緩的時間亦較長。 九、台灣與日本金融危機經驗給吾人之改革啟示 (一)在銀行制度應有的改革:1.強化金融監理體系，力求金融監理一元化。2.鼓勵金融機構合併。3.設立資產管理公司。4.成立控股公司。 (二)在貨幣市場應有的改革:1.發行票券的公司需經信用評等。2.建立票券業務防火牆及內控制度。3.貨幣市場共同基金與銀行體系進行競爭，可提升競爭力。 (三)在資本市場應有的改革:1.降低股市的財務槓桿比率，適度調低融資成數。2.加強查緝丙種經紀人。3.提高法人投資比重，使市場結構趨於穩定，降低股市的波動性。4.加強取締內線交易。 (四)在外匯市場應有的改革:1.匯率制度儘量尊重市場供需機能。2.如果外債過高，過度引進外資易造成金融機構信用過度膨脹。而企業負債比例過高、若資金過度流向股市及不動產投機市場，金融機構易導致鉅額呆帳或倒閉。3.央行對無本金交割遠期外匯投機交易應有嚴格的規定，避免外匯過度投機。 (五)在產業政策應有的改革:1.未來高科技的發展，不應再依循以往政府專案資助的模式，宜交由市場機制，自行運作。2.政府只要提供良好的投資環境，並建立良好的制度與規範。3.企業界需培植高級人才，提升研發能力。 十、結論:(一)發生金融危機，市場運作偏離常軌，政府的短期救急措施顯得非常重要。(二)就中長期而言，為加速經濟結構的調整，因應泡沫經濟的衝擊，政府由擴大公共投資、貫徹自由化政策及加速產業升級三方面著手。(三)日本振興經濟方案偏重公共投資，且方案執行有時間落後。(四)日本財政赤字嚴重惡化，影響經濟復甦腳步。(五)日本主政者未針對經濟的病因，進行結構性改革。 十一、政策性意含:(一)慎評擴大內需效果。(二)貨幣政策應同時兼顧內需市場與國際市場。(三)政府需研擬整套金融改革方案。(四)日本金融改革給台灣的啟示。 第一章 緒論----------------------------------------------------1 第一節 研究背景與目的--------------------------------------1 第二節 研究內容與架構--------------------------------------4 第三節 研究方法與限制--------------------------------------7 第四節 研究期間與資料來源之限制----------------------------7 第五節 文獻回顧--------------------------------------------7 第二章 台灣金融危機的成因、後果及政府因應對策-----------------15 第一節 台灣金融危機的期間與背景---------------------------15 第二節 台灣金融危機的成因分析-----------------------------19 第三節 台灣金融危機的後果分析-----------------------------32 第四節 台灣金融危機的政府因應對策-------------------------40 第五節 台灣金融危機的政府因應對策效果評析-----------------58 第三章 日本金融危機的成因、後果及政府因應對策-----------------70 第一節 日本金融危機的期間與背景---------------------------70 第二節 日本金融危機的成因分析---------------------------- 78 第三節 日本金融危機的後果分析---------------------------- 85 第四節 日本金融危機的政府因應對策-------------------------89 第五節 日本金融危機的政府因應對策效果評析--------------------103 第四章 台灣與日本金融危機的成因、後果及政府因應對策 之比較----------------------------------------------- 114 第一節 台、日金融危機成因之比較分析----------------------114 第二節 台、日金融危機後果之比較分析----------------------119 第三節 台、日金融危機政府因應對策之比較分析--------------125 第四節 台、日金融危機政府因應對策效果之比較分析----------142 第五章 台灣與日本金融危機經驗給吾人之改革啟示----------------146 第一節 在銀行制度應有的改革------------------------------146 第二節 在貨幣市場應有的改革------------------------------154 第三節 在資本市場應有的改革------------------------------157 第四節 在外匯市場應有的改革------------------------------161 第五節 在產業政策應有的改革----------------------------------163 第六章 結論--------------------------------------------------166 第一節 本文主要發現--------------------------------------166 第二節 本文政策性意涵------------------------------------169 註 釋-----------------------------------------------------174 參考書目-----------------------------------------------------178

金融危機是一種反常的金融現象，其共同的現象是資金外流、貨幣兌美元大幅貶值、股價重挫、經濟成長衰退、百業蕭條，這就是金融危機。而近代的金融危機趨勢不再只是單一區域的問題，就由這次1997下半年自泰國貨幣開始貶值的貨幣危機，經過一連串的蔓延效應後，影響所及不限於東南亞地區，更擴及俄羅斯、東歐、拉丁美洲等地，造成全球主要新興市場和新興工業國家的經濟遭受嚴重打擊，儼然已變成全球金融危機。 大部分過去經濟學者一開始均用傳統貨幣危機理論來分析金融危機，如Krugman在1979年提出標準的「第一代危機模型」，其中強調經濟基本面的持續惡化，導致維持固定匯率區間的制度遭到阻力，也因此產生了貶值的壓力，也就是由經濟的實質面去影響到金融面。但有鑑於這次亞洲金融危機並非以基本面因素來解釋即可令人信服，必須配合經濟趨勢的潮流，再加入金融面因素來探討以補基本面理論的不足，尤其再加入因金融恐慌的自我實現危機型態以及傳染蔓延因素，兩者互相配合以求能更完整分析為何這次金融危機能襲擊全球新興市場的原因。 此外，本文並描述各國因受金融危機衝擊所帶來的影響，以及各國政府採取何種因應措施，最後仍不敵國際投機客和市場預期心理下，紛紛請求IMF的支援。但IMF的援助貸款附帶有嚴苛條件，這些國家在實行IMF的政策後卻帶來經濟更加萎縮的事實。本文亦針對IMF的各項政策提出質疑與探討，並期研擬出更正確的政策方針。台灣在這次金融危機中雖相較受創較輕，但不容否認仍對台灣經濟社會帶來許多衝擊，本文亦分析台灣金融制度的問題，並且提出各項因應政策的比較分析。最後，匯總幾點本文研究結論與建議。 第一章 導論…………………………………………1 第一節 研究背景與目的…………………………………………1 第二節 研究內容與架構…………………………………………3 第三節 研究方法與流程…………………………………………5 第二章 金融危機發生的原因………………………7 第一節 第一代危機模型…………………………………………8 第二節 基本面因素…………………………………………….10 第三節 金融面實質現象的主要論點………………………….25 第三章 金融危機的原因--系統性風險的探討……46 第一節 系統性風險下的危機………………………………….48 第二節 第二代危機模型……………………………………….52 第三節 傳染蔓延……………………………………………….58 第四章 金融危機對世界各國的衝擊………………61 第一節 危機發生前的總體經濟條件………………………….62 第二節 1997上半年危機前的苦難……………………………65 第三節 1997年貨幣危機的蔓延效應…………………………67 第四節 金融危機的因應政策………………………………….70 第五節 與1930年代經濟大蕭條比較…………………………75 第五章 金融危機對台灣的影響……………………77 第一節 基本面優勢…………………………………………….78 第二節 金融危機的影響與台灣金融問題…………………….81 第三節 台灣所採取的因應政策………………………………86 第四節 金融危機的教訓和經驗萃取………………………….92 第六章 結論…………………………………………94 第一節 本文主要發現………………………………………….95 第二節 本文政策性意涵……………………………………….96 第三節 研究建議……………………………………………….98

This study sought to establish the business strategies employed by Mobile Company X Zimbabwe (MCXZ) for it to survive the challenging economy. A qualitative research and a case-based approach involving MCXZ were used. Semi-structured interviews and secondary data were used to produce qualitative data and for triangulation of findings. Data was analysed and managed through qualitative coding and Atlas.ti program. The findings of the study showed that MCXZ employed growth business strategies through market penetration, product development, market development and strategic alliances. In addition, the study found that banking crisis, high competition, rapid technological changes, consumer preferences, shrinking markets and unfavourable government policies are the main threats in the challenging economy. However, MCXZ managed to survive and grow due to the integration of business strategies and the key success factors (KSF) in the industry. The KSF are organisational agility, research and development, quality and affordable mobile phones and effective after sales service and accessories. / Business Management / M. Com. (Business Management)

Pour remédier aux nombreuses insuffisances et défaillances constatées dans le système de régulation et de surveillance du secteur financier, post crise, de nombreuses réformes institutionnelles ont été réalisées à l'initiative des organismes et autorités de régulation bancaire et financière aussi bien au niveau national qu'au niveau international. Le Royaume du Maroc, en vertu de son statut avancé, signé en octobre 2008, a fait un réel effort pour réduire les différences entre les législations marocaine et européenne. Il a consenti à se rapprocher des normes européennes sur le plan législatif et réglementaire avec l'objectif d'être intégré au marché intérieur européen et de disposer d'une économie plus efficace. Toutefois, le système bancaire marocain ne semble pas adhérer aux changements induits par ce travail de convergence, si non il y a encore du chemin à faire dans ce sens et une convergence totale demandera, incontestablement, "des années"! Cette thèse tente d'examiner les difficultés d'adaptation des techniques de régulation européenne au système financier marocain à travers notamment, le système de régulation des banques marocaines, l'encadrement des mécanismes relevant du shadow banking et des opérations du marché des produits dérivés. Elle met l'accent sur les nombreux défis que cette industrie aura à relever dans les années à venir. Après une analyse des principales difficultés d'adaptation des techniques de régulation européennes au système financier marocain (Partie I), quelques solutions sont proposées, à savoir la finance islamique comme une finance complémentaire à la finance conventionnelle, l'inclusion financière comme une solution ayant pour finalité la réduction de la pauvreté et la création de postes d'emplois et le crowdfunding comme moyen de financement par le public de projet de création d'entreprise et solution au resserrement de crédit constaté après la crise de 2008 (Partie II). / The extent of the 2008 financial crisis' diffusion gave rise to strenuous and far-reaching debates about international financial stability. In fact, the question of financial instituions' social responsability seen as a financial stability vector has become the center of every debate. Financial instituions' governance and risk management devices have not only highlighted the vulnerability of the banking system, but also its inability to deal with liquidity requirements. With no doubt,banks have not been cautions enough to evaluate the risks they were taking. After the crisis, many institutional reforms were carried out at the initiative of banking and financial regulatory authorities, both at national and international levels, to tackle the numerous shortcomings and deficiencies found in the financial sector's regulation and supervision system. Under the Advanced Status, signed in October 2008, the Kingdom of Morocco has tried hard to reduce the gap between the Moroccan and the European legislations. In fact, it has agreed to move closer to European standards on the legislative and regulatory level aiming to be more integrated into the European internal market and to have a more efficient economy. Nevertheless, the banking system doesn't seem to adhere to the changes that were induced by this convergence work. Thus, there is still some way to go in this direction, not to mention that such a total convergence would take "years"! This thesis attempts to examine the difficulties of adapting European regulatory techniques to the Moroccan financial system, particularly through the Moroccan banks' control system and the supervision of mechanisms that take place under the "Shadow Banking" and the derivative market. It emphasizes all of the challenges this industry will have to face in the coming years. After an analysis of the main difficulties of adapting European regulatory techniques to the Moroccan financial system (Part I), some solutions are suggested,namely Islamic finance as a complement to the conventional one, financial inclusion as a solution aiming to reduce poverty and create jobs, and "Crowdfunding" as a financing tool for the mass individual investors to back start up projects, and a solution to the credit tightening phenomenon after the crisis of 2008 (Part II).