Orientador: Maria Alejandra Caporale Madi / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Economia / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-04T01:32:34Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Chianamea_DanteRicardo_M.pdf: 425425 bytes, checksum: 961e738189ae343b617ae6ea57b6235c (MD5) Previous issue date: 2004 / Resumo: : De acordo com a teoria econômica que se utiliza, os ciclos econômicos previstos assumem características diferentes: alguns supõem que exista uma regularidade, previsível por modelos estocásticos, em torno do custo de obtenção dos ativos reais; outros admitem desvios temporários, que podem ser previstos dentro de um prazo mais longo, entre o valor atribuído aos ativos e o valor real deles; e há um terceiro tipo que abrange as mudanças permanentes, que nem sempre podem ser previstas, de valor atribuído aos ativos. A eficácia da regulação prudencial, no sentido de manter o sistema financeiro saudável, depende do modelo de ciclo econômico considerado na sua elaboração, na medida em que estes afetam os valores dos ativos que compõem os balanços e os passivos contingentes das instituições financeiras. Este trabalho trata da evolução que o Acordo da Basiléia II e os novos modelos de risco a ele associados representam em relação ao primeiro Acordo, bem como das limitações que continuam pendentes / Abstract: Accordingly with economic theory employed, foreseeing economic cycles acquires proper characteristics: some suppose a pre-existing regularity, which is foreseeable by stochastic models on real business supply costs; other ones include temporary deviations from market to real values during the cycle time period but real values are detectable if we work in a longer time horizon; a third model has also considered permanent changes in market attributed values although they are not always predictable. The prudential regulation effectiveness - in the sense of reaching a soundness financial system ¿ depends on economic cycle model used in its development because of their influence in banks¿ balance asset values and contingent liabilities. This work is about Basel II Accord and new risk models evolution relative to the first Basel Accord and its models as well as their boundaries / Mestrado / Politica Economica / Mestre em Ciências Econômicas

Having the author been involved in banking and finance for almost 25 years, this thesis intends to reflect on the role of banks with emphasis on cross border lending and credit rating, their effectiveness and the impacts of cultural differences. Perhaps this would not differ substantially from a researcher or a scholar, yet the exploratory approach taken in this research will be somewhat different as it deliberately seeks to answer a number of questions relevant to practitioners in today’s banking. In trying to achieve this goal, this thesis hopefully may find its way to international bankers wondering about the perspectives of their business in general and their profession in specific. It even may perhaps improve the understanding of their clients. The Basel committee which published the new Basel II framework on bank regulation and supervision was the result of long and careful discussions, wide consultations and comprehensive impact studies. Whereas Basel II covers the entire risk profile and supervision of financial institutions, this research is limited to the cross border lending by banks to companies and provides the views from both practicing international bankers and their customers on their 3 expectations regarding Basel II, credit rating and the relevance of context and culture differences. Bankers all over the world are being trained on how to read balance sheets, yet less attention is being paid as to by whom they are being created and how precisely these balance sheets came into existence, other than the accountancy standards applied. Bankers furthermore seem to agree on the fact that credit risks in large part are related to the management competencies, effective corporate governance and integrity of management and organization. The argument could be made that the assessment of management capabilities, governance and integrity may be hindered in those cases where the culture is little understood. In a three days conferences titled; “The Future of Relationship Banking”, 80 senior executives from international banks and large companies were gathered in Punta del Este, Uruguay and were asked to speak about these aspects. A transcript of the conference is provided as annex to this thesis (Annex 1) and serves to triangulate the findings of the research. Main findings of three management papers were presented by the researcher during the conference. A survey was performed during the conference and in addition, through an online survey, in total over 100 practitioners in the field participated in the survey. Results show a variation of conclusions, but very especially seem to confirm the view, contrary to the approach taken in Basel II, that cultural differences and context are felt to be highly relevant in cross border lending.

Basel II預備於2006年施行.屆時各金融機構均須依其規定計提各項風險性資本.目前台灣的金融機構逾期放款仍多,借款人接受信用評等的殊渺.再者台灣的金融機構所承作的中小企業貸款件數眾多.短期內欲對眾多借款戶施以信用評等殊為不易,因此Basel II 施行之後台灣金融業之貸款,勢必受到壓抑,此乃因(一)銀行無法提列太多的資本(二)台灣的中小企業財報真實性欠佳以及中小企業得自有資本不足,屆時,若銀行的受信無法推展,則企業的投資周轉受到壓抑,將危及到經濟發展.而貸款證券化恰可解決銀行貸款業務的瓶頸.CLO可創造銀行投資者及企業界各取所需有益國家經濟發展.

近來我國金融市場掀起了新巴塞爾資本協定(BaselⅡ )的 熱潮，「風險管理」與「BaselⅡ 」被劃上了”等”號，於2006 年年底國際性銀行同步實施BaselⅡ ， 亞洲國家中日本、新 加坡、香港以及台灣擠進第一波實施的行列，我國監理機關 與金融機構都面臨了重大的挑戰與轉型的契機，BaselⅡ 的精 神乃在引導金融機構正視風險管理的議題，以宏觀的經營角 度思考整體的風險與報酬。 證券市場這幾年來，因開放金控的設立以及國外券商來 台設立分公司， 整體金融產業的結構有很大的調整與變化， 新金融商品與衍生性商品的推陳出新與研發創新，使得證券 業可承作的商品日趨多樣化與多元化，相對地，證券商的專 業能力與商品的專業知識有明顯的技術落差，經營之整體風 險不斷的擴大與加劇，證券商將面臨內部極大的挑戰與外部 劇烈的競爭壓力與威脅， 面對瞬息萬變的金融市場， 實施 BaselⅡ 對健全我國金融市場的發展有積極正面的意義，其三 大支柱架構如下: 第一支柱 : 「最低資本計提」， 訂定最低資本適足門檻， 鼓 勵金融機構自行研發內部衡量法，計提信用風險、市場 風險、作業風險之最低資本需求， 以維持經營水準。 第二支柱 :「監理審查程序」，制定監理審查原則與程序，加 強監理機關審查之專業能力與執行審查之一致性。 第三支柱 : 「市場紀律」， 簡化資訊揭露的要求， 重著財務 資訊與風險管理資訊之揭露，提供市場參與者充分瞭解 金融機構風險概況， 以促進市場約制。 本研究針對證券業，以整體風險管理為考量來探究適用 BaselⅡ 風險管理的架構與導入風險管理的步驟，從制定風險 管理的政策、發展風險衡量的方法進而架構運行風險管理之 基礎建設， 著重落實風險管理的制度以達到風險管理的效 益， 並強調「風險管理」不是企業發展的限制， 而是未來企 業核心的價值、獲利的基礎與國際競爭之優勢。 / The financial market of our country has raised the upsurge of new Basel capital protocol (Basel Ⅱ ) recently ， "risk management" has been considered as the equal term as " BaselⅡ"，the international bank will implement Basel II in step at the end of the year of 2006 ， the first wave of ranks implemented get into Japan， Singapore， Hong Kong and Taiwan in the Asian countries， Taiwan’s organs and financial institution are all facing the great challenge and opportunity of transition ， the spirit of Basel Ⅱ is the topic leading the financial institution to face risk management， ponder over the risk and reward of the whole in terms of management of the macroscopic. Securities market over these several years， the license’s release of establishment of financial holdings and foreign securities trader come to Taiwan to set up branch company， whole financial structure of industry have heavy adjustment very and change. New financial instrument and derivatives products research and development innovation， make more diversified and complexities that securities can make. On the contrary ， the professional ability and knowledge of the instruments of the dealer in securities have obvious technological drop. In the face of the fast changing financial market， securities will face the violent challenge internally and with great competition pressure and threaten externally. There are positive and positive meanings to the development which perfects the financial market of our country to implement Basel Ⅱ . Its three major pillars structure is as follows: First pillar - "minimum capital requirement"， to stipulate minimum capital threshold， to encourage financial institution research and develop inside model by oneself， to count the minimum capital demand of proposing credit risks ， market risk ， operational risk， in order to keep the competence of managing. The second pillar - " review the process of supervisory"， to make the principle and procedure for regulatory compliance， and to strengthen the professional ability and review in a consistency way. The third pillar - "market discipline"， simplifying the request for information revealing， and focus on financial information and risk management information， to offer the participant in the market to fully find out about the risk overview of financial institution， and to make in order the market discipline. The thesis is more focusing on the securities business，and is researching into the framework of BaselⅡ compliance and implementation procedure of risk management in regard with enterprise-wide risk management. Starting from setting the policy of risk management， developing the risk measurement method to the structuring the infrastructure of risk management ， is to highlight the importance of risk management system and to get the benefits of risk management. Also， that risk management is not a restriction of enterprise's development， but enterprise's core competence ， lucrative foundation and advantage of international competition in the future.

Capital Adequacy of Commercial Banks The purpose of the thesis is to analyse particular capital adequacy issues. The thesis is composed of three chapters, each dealing with particular aspects of capital adequacy. The introductory Chapter One clarifies the meaning of capital adequacy. The thesis is based on two main aims. Chapter Two examines Basel Committee of Banking Supervision materials and following relevant EU and Czech legislation. The methodology used in this chapter vests in comparative analysis and legal analysis of current Czech national legislation. The first aim is to tackle the legal issues of implementation and effective enforcement of current capital adequacy rules, with concentration on the key problem of inconsistency of implementation among countries. The Chapter Three describes the reasons for adoption of new regulatory rules of capital adequacy in connection with recent turbulent changes in financial markets. To make a conclusion whether Basel III is a sufficient reaction is the second main aim. It focuses on analyse of the Basel III rules as a set with some practical notes on ongoing implementation in the world or in the Czech Republic in particular. The Basel Committee rules need to be implemented carefully. Whether by partial or incomplete implementation of Basel rules or by...

Abstract (english) Objectives The main objective of this work is to design methods and proceadures enhancing effectiveness and efficiency of IT audit in banks with the accent given to their use by the supervisory authorities. Another objective of the work (and an essential starting point at the same time) is a summary and assesment of methods and proceadures developed and implemented into the CNB practice with regard to banking supervision in the area of information systems. Objectives Achievement From the methodological point of view the esential starting point of the work was represented by above mentioned objectives that were used for elaboration of a set of questions. Questions enabled to set up the hypotheses. (Another more particular hypotheses were defined in order to design the particular solutions in chapter 5.) Futhermore, the critical factors (problems) were defined in the process of the questions analyses. Subsequently, the solutions were specified. The solutions confirmed the hypotheses which reflected the achievement of the objectives. Description, categorisation, analyses, screening, modelling, comparative analyses and sample testing were used to achieve the objectives. In particular, the solutions that were elaborated, making use of methods described above, enhance effectiveness and efficiency of IT audit in banks. Moreover, the CNB's proceadures and methods were introduced and assesed within the work. Scientific Contribution The work brings an evidence of correlation between the quality of IT audit in banks and their economical performance. With this regard the work contributes with original conclusions, benchmarks and proceadures that may be used by banks, supervisory authorities and IT auditors. These conclusions are achieved by description, categorisation, analyses, modelling and screening research highlighting the role of the rentability, the productivity, the risks, the inovations and the economical value of information. Furthermore, the IT audit and IT supervision in banks are specified. They are also compared and contrast to the other audit cathegories. The work presents important peaces of evidence regarding the role of IT audit in this context. This is made by description, cathegorisation and analyses. Another contribution represents proceadures and methods developed and implemented (to the large extend by author) in the field od IT banking supervision in the Czech Republic. This delivers valuable outputs for foreign supervision authorities, banks and auditors. The work lead to original solutions of critical factors. These solutions are to use by IT audit and IT supervision (and also in audit work generally). The solutions make use of ceartain atributes of Capability Maturity Model (CMM) and were elaborated in the proces of decsription, cathegorisation, screening research, comparative analyses, hypotheses seting and testing. The solutions enhances acuracy and objectiveness of assesment done by IT auditors. The solutions lead to better comparativeness of audit outputs on both national and international level, give better preconditions for risk assesment and capital adequacy evaluation within BASEL II and enhance the information value of audit ouptuts. The structure (content) of the work reflects the above mentioned articles that give a brief description of the main four parts (chapters) of the work.

Thesis (M.M. (Finance & Investment)--University of the Witwatersrand, Faculty of Commerce, Law and Management, Wits Business School, 2016 / The study is an assessment of the current treatment of business risk, as a significant risk type for financial institutions. It includes an industry analysis of the five major banks in South Africa, as well as international banks, and how these banks currently manage business risk in the Pillar 2 supervisory process. It assesses economic capital frameworks and the importance of business risk in the risk assessment and measurement process in the global and local industry. Various methodologies have been researched to assess which statistical methods are best suited in the measurement of this risk type as well as the quantification of the capital levels required. This study has compared the available statistical methodologies currently used in the industry and concludes which is best given the issues pertaining to the modelling of business risk quantification. A statistical model has been developed to quantify business risk for a specific bank using bank specific data, using a methodology which is relatively generic and could be applied widely across all financial institutions. The model serves to illustrate the principles surrounding the quantification of business risk economic capital. / GR2018

Made available in DSpace on 2016-03-15T19:25:40Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Rafael Felicio Mileo Neto.pdf: 1273950 bytes, checksum: 918a06ee6a1bd5351e3b400a3731cfdd (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011-03-14 / Fundo Mackenzie de Pesquisa / The susceptibility of credit market to losses encouraged the institution of regulations, such as Basel I and II Capital Accords, which stimulated the development of credit portfolio management models. The objective of this dissertation is to observe the behavior of two advanced models of credit portfolio risk, KMV, based on Merton (1974) studies, and CreditRisk+, developed by Credit Suisse Financial Products. The study aims to evaluate the performance of each model in sample credit portfolios, according to market, account and debt data of companies. Through variations in each model parameters, the model`s performances in different scenarios will also be analyzed. The research focuses specifically on loss distributions generated by the models, given the changes in the parameters during the simulations. To achieve these goals, the historical evolution of credit risk is discussed, starting with the first registered loans, in Antiquity, up until the last decade, when many international regulations to credit risk were created. / A suscetibilidade do mercado de crédito a perdas incentivou a criação de regulamentações, como os Acordos de Capital da Basileia I e II, que estimularam o desenvolvimento de modelos de gestão de portfólio de crédito. O objetivo desta dissertação é observar o comportamento de dois modelos avançados de mensuração do risco: o KMV, baseado nos estudos de Merton (1974), e o CreditRisk+, criado pela Credit Suisse Financial Products. O estudo pretende verificar seus desempenhos em amostras de carteiras baseadas em informações contábeis, de mercado e de títulos de dívidas de empresas, através de variações aplicadas nos parâmetros de cada modelo, serão realizadas, também, análises de desempenho dos modelos em diferentes cenários. A pesquisa foca, especificamente, as distribuições de perdas geradas pelos modelos. Para a conclusão desses objetivos, o risco de crédito é abordado conforme sua evolução histórica, iniciando com os primeiros registros de concessão de financiamentos, na Antiguidade, até o passado recente, quando surgiram as principais regulamentações transnacionais para o risco de crédito.

The global financial crisis that commenced in June 2007 has been described as the most serious financial crisis since the Great Depression of the 1930s. It resulted in considerable international distress with almost all major banks experiencing capital shortages and some defaulting outright. Among the principal causes was an explosive increase - by a factor of ten in some cases - in credit defaults precipitated by lax lending standards which prevailed for several years. The crisis caused several major institutions to fail (and be subsequently acquired under duress): many of these were subject to takeovers by their relevant sovereigns, including - amongst others - Lehman Brothers, Merrill Lynch, Fannie Mae, Freddie Mac and American International Group and AIG. The financial crisis is believed to be directly responsible for the bleak forecasts (2009 and beyond) faced by the global economy. The measure of global volatility, the VIX, trebled in the third quarter of 2008, interest rate spreads between government fixed income securities and interbank rates widened to unprecedented levels, global inflation threatened an already fragile, volatile marketplace, corporate and retail loan default rates rose and downgrades of large financial institutions (such as US Monoline bond insurers)and manycorporates were experienced by major rating agencies during the first quarter of 2009. The aim of this thesis was to discuss and critically evaluate how the financial crisis has impacted banking risks and also the effect it had on international banks. This has been accomplished through the modification of existing risk measurement techniques and, in some cases, through the development of new techniques, when older risk models proved to be inadequate. A principal secondary aim of the thesis was the testing of these methodologies - in real-world contexts - to ascertain their reliability and robustness concomitant with the adaptation of these methodologies in the light of the new empirical evidence. Important other secondary objectives were the development of novel approaches w0here the research results required it and and the introduction of practical ways to use the results of the thesis in a post-crisis bank risk management environment. Some of the bank asset portfolios that were investigated in the thesis were generated bysimulated data to replicate specific characteristics during the crisis, while the other portfolios comprised entirelyof empirical data. The first objective, of the thesis, was to determine the effect of stressed economic conditions on b.erational risk loss distributions. The depth and duration of the credit crisis have highlighted a number of problems in modern finance. Banks have been accused of excessive risk taking, rating agencies of severe conflicts of interest, central banks of neglecting the inflation of asset price bubbles and national supervisors of laxregulatorycontrols. Credit and market losses have been considerable. Operational losses have also surged as surviving corporates merge or acquire less fortunate ones without the requisite controls. As more jobs get made redundant it is believed that employees revert to internal fraud as their sources of income have dried up drasticallyand stealing from the institution seems to b.tional losses have been affected has been presented and a comparison has been made between operational loss characteristics pre and during the crisis. Some of the main findings were that operational losses have shown little change in frequency, but shown a significant increase in severity, meaning that their financial impact has been more severe during the crisis. It is safe to saythat the financial crisis most definitelyin.creased operational risk in banks much more severe losses. The second objective was to focus on the effect of the stressed economic conditions on the applicability and effectiveness of the credit risk measurement methodologies and the minimum capital requirements, pre.scribed to banks in Basel II. The robustness of the Basel II accord in protecting banks during volatile eco.nomic periods has been challenged in the ongoing financial crisis. Advanced approaches to measuring and managing credit risk in particular have drawn criticism for being too complexand irrelevant. Despite accusa.tions that the accord was largelyresponsible for the crisis, this studyexplored which of Basel II's credit risk approaches were more successful in measuring the bank?s credit risk and calculating the required minimum capital charge for the bank. It was found that, in general, compliance with Basel II actuallyprotected banks during the crisis with the simpler approaches enjoying greater success than more advanced ones, in protect.ing banks against credit risk. The third objective was to appraise the effect of stressed economic conditions on the systemic risk within the South African Banking sector. The financial crisis resulted in increases in credit-, market-and opera.tional risk, but it mayalso have precipitated a surge in systemic risk. Measuring systemic risk as the price of insurance against distressed losses in the South African banking sector, this studyillustrated that the finan.cial crisis has in fact resulted in an increase in systemic risk. Using probabilities of default and asset return correlations as systemic risk indicators, it was established that the financial crisis has indeed increased sys.temic risk in South Africa. The impact was, however, less severe than that experienced in other large interna.tional banks. The fourth and final objective of this studywas to focus on liquiditycreation in South African banks under stressed economic conditions. The financial crisis placed severe pressure on global bank liquidity. Many banks were unable to create sufficient liquidityand had to receive government support or face default. This studyillustrated the impact of the financial crisis on liquiditycreation within South African banks using a model previouslyapplied to US banks. Four measures of liquiditycreation are discussed and applied to data spanning 2004 ? 2009. Although created liquiditydecreased steeplyfrom 2007, liquidity levels in 2009re.main about 45% higher than those of 2004. The four large South African banks created about 80% of the total market liquidity, and a possible reason for this is that these banks have verylarge retail divisions, which have assisted them in creating much more liquiditythan the smaller banks which have much smaller retail divisions. In conclusion, and as illustrated through the findings of this study, the financial crisis did impact the major banking risks on various levels and it is therefore safe to saythat the financial crisis has reformed the interna.tional risk management environment and will also do so in the years to come. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Economics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011.

The global financial crisis that commenced in June 2007 has been described as the most serious financial crisis since the Great Depression of the 1930s. It resulted in considerable international distress with almost all major banks experiencing capital shortages and some defaulting outright. Among the principal causes was an explosive increase - by a factor of ten in some cases - in credit defaults precipitated by lax lending standards which prevailed for several years. The crisis caused several major institutions to fail (and be subsequently acquired under duress): many of these were subject to takeovers by their relevant sovereigns, including - amongst others - Lehman Brothers, Merrill Lynch, Fannie Mae, Freddie Mac and American International Group and AIG. The financial crisis is believed to be directly responsible for the bleak forecasts (2009 and beyond) faced by the global economy. The measure of global volatility, the VIX, trebled in the third quarter of 2008, interest rate spreads between government fixed income securities and interbank rates widened to unprecedented levels, global inflation threatened an already fragile, volatile marketplace, corporate and retail loan default rates rose and downgrades of large financial institutions (such as US Monoline bond insurers)and manycorporates were experienced by major rating agencies during the first quarter of 2009. The aim of this thesis was to discuss and critically evaluate how the financial crisis has impacted banking risks and also the effect it had on international banks. This has been accomplished through the modification of existing risk measurement techniques and, in some cases, through the development of new techniques, when older risk models proved to be inadequate. A principal secondary aim of the thesis was the testing of these methodologies - in real-world contexts - to ascertain their reliability and robustness concomitant with the adaptation of these methodologies in the light of the new empirical evidence. Important other secondary objectives were the development of novel approaches w0here the research results required it and and the introduction of practical ways to use the results of the thesis in a post-crisis bank risk management environment. Some of the bank asset portfolios that were investigated in the thesis were generated bysimulated data to replicate specific characteristics during the crisis, while the other portfolios comprised entirelyof empirical data. The first objective, of the thesis, was to determine the effect of stressed economic conditions on b.erational risk loss distributions. The depth and duration of the credit crisis have highlighted a number of problems in modern finance. Banks have been accused of excessive risk taking, rating agencies of severe conflicts of interest, central banks of neglecting the inflation of asset price bubbles and national supervisors of laxregulatorycontrols. Credit and market losses have been considerable. Operational losses have also surged as surviving corporates merge or acquire less fortunate ones without the requisite controls. As more jobs get made redundant it is believed that employees revert to internal fraud as their sources of income have dried up drasticallyand stealing from the institution seems to b.tional losses have been affected has been presented and a comparison has been made between operational loss characteristics pre and during the crisis. Some of the main findings were that operational losses have shown little change in frequency, but shown a significant increase in severity, meaning that their financial impact has been more severe during the crisis. It is safe to saythat the financial crisis most definitelyin.creased operational risk in banks much more severe losses. The second objective was to focus on the effect of the stressed economic conditions on the applicability and effectiveness of the credit risk measurement methodologies and the minimum capital requirements, pre.scribed to banks in Basel II. The robustness of the Basel II accord in protecting banks during volatile eco.nomic periods has been challenged in the ongoing financial crisis. Advanced approaches to measuring and managing credit risk in particular have drawn criticism for being too complexand irrelevant. Despite accusa.tions that the accord was largelyresponsible for the crisis, this studyexplored which of Basel II's credit risk approaches were more successful in measuring the bank?s credit risk and calculating the required minimum capital charge for the bank. It was found that, in general, compliance with Basel II actuallyprotected banks during the crisis with the simpler approaches enjoying greater success than more advanced ones, in protect.ing banks against credit risk. The third objective was to appraise the effect of stressed economic conditions on the systemic risk within the South African Banking sector. The financial crisis resulted in increases in credit-, market-and opera.tional risk, but it mayalso have precipitated a surge in systemic risk. Measuring systemic risk as the price of insurance against distressed losses in the South African banking sector, this studyillustrated that the finan.cial crisis has in fact resulted in an increase in systemic risk. Using probabilities of default and asset return correlations as systemic risk indicators, it was established that the financial crisis has indeed increased sys.temic risk in South Africa. The impact was, however, less severe than that experienced in other large interna.tional banks. The fourth and final objective of this studywas to focus on liquiditycreation in South African banks under stressed economic conditions. The financial crisis placed severe pressure on global bank liquidity. Many banks were unable to create sufficient liquidityand had to receive government support or face default. This studyillustrated the impact of the financial crisis on liquiditycreation within South African banks using a model previouslyapplied to US banks. Four measures of liquiditycreation are discussed and applied to data spanning 2004 ? 2009. Although created liquiditydecreased steeplyfrom 2007, liquidity levels in 2009re.main about 45% higher than those of 2004. The four large South African banks created about 80% of the total market liquidity, and a possible reason for this is that these banks have verylarge retail divisions, which have assisted them in creating much more liquiditythan the smaller banks which have much smaller retail divisions. In conclusion, and as illustrated through the findings of this study, the financial crisis did impact the major banking risks on various levels and it is therefore safe to saythat the financial crisis has reformed the interna.tional risk management environment and will also do so in the years to come. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Economics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011.