LL.M. / This research is a comparative study of the provisions for guardianship and custody, including maintenance of the South African common law and customary law. In customary law the emphasis is on the law of the Bafokeng people which is a tribe chosen as group of the research. The purpose of this research is to analyze the provisions of guardianship, custody and maintenance applicable to these legal systems. The analysis is divided as follows: • Guardianship and custody: (i) during the marriage; after divorce; after death of parent(s); of an extra-marital child. • Maintenance of children: (i) during the marriage; after divorce; after death of parent(s); born outside marriage (extra-marital children). The objective is to highlight the similarities and differences between the provisions of these legal systems and to come up with the conclusion whether the one is more favourable than the other in catering for the needs and interests of its subjects. The conclusion will be governed by the following issues: • Which legal system caters for the interests of its subjects? • Which legal system accords with the provisions of the Constitution Act? • Which legal system protects the interests of the child best? Having come to that conclusion, the researcher aims at indicating laws which should be considered for reform.

La constitutionnalisation représente “une action qui consiste en l’octroide la nature constitutionnelle à un règle ou en la confirmation d’une institution par larègle constitutionnelle ”1. La définition trouvée dans le Vocabulaire juridique este trèsrestreinte et incomplète. Le phénomène de constitutionnalisation est complexe et semanifeste dans toutes les branches du droit, tant par l’entremise de la doctrine quepar des moyens jurisprudentielles, qui seront mises en évidence à travers cetouvrage.De nos jours, le procès de constitutionnalisation du droit en général et du droit pénalen particulaire, comporte d’intérêt par les méthodes utilisées, par les effets qu’ilproduit, mais également par la nécessité de la différentiation d’autres conceptssimilaires, comme constitutionalité ou constitutionalisme.L’importance du thème se focalise sur la nécessité de l’élimination des confusionscrées autour du terme de constitutionnalisation. En égale mesure, on se propose àmettre en valeur les prémisses du phénomène de constitutionnalisation, mais aussiles moyens par lesquels le procès en soi-même produit ses effets.Le thème choisi comporte l’intérêt d’une approche interdisciplinaire, tels quel’approche de la perspective du droit comparé, ce qui confère d’originalité, maiségalement une vision innovatrice sur l’intersection des deux branches du droit.Le plan binaire suppose une analyse concernant les premisses de laconstitutionnalisation du droit pénal et les moyens et les effets de laconstitutionnalisation du droit pénal roumain et français. / The chosen topic sets forward the interest of an interdisciplinaryapproach as well as the approach from the perspective of comparative law, thusconferring originality, but also an innovating vision on the intersection of two lawbranches. We propose the analysis of criminal law constitutionalization due to thegeneral trend in which criminal law is equally subscribed, namely that ofinternationalization, Europeanization and constitutionalization of law. Moreover, thestudy of the two law branches is relevant given the highly intimate connectionsbetween them, through rendering more effective the protection of fundamental rightsand liberties.As research method we subscribed the entire thesis to a well-known method ofRomanian and French university school which embraces a new binary structure:problematization – solutions or hypothesis – demonstrations. The problem orhypothesis raised by the thesis is ”What is the starting point and how does the process of constitutionalization of the criminal law acts/functions?”, implicitlyadmitting the existence of such a phenomenon. The solutions or demonstrations arereflected as answers to the central questions, forged on the research plan of thethesis: highlighting the relations between criminal law and the Constitution,respectively of the means of constitutionalization and the effects of this phenomenon.Following the principles exposed by Legal Sociology regarding the integration of aprocess in the limits of a phenomenon, we reached the conclusion that in the case ofconstitutionalization, it fulfills all necessary requirements in order to be catalogued assuch. An argument in this respect is represented by the spread of this phenomenonboth from the spatial perspective (being encountered both in the European space aswell as in the international space) and from the perspective of the branches of law,which are subject to the process of constitutionalization (accordingly, we identified aseries of illustrations from Administrative Law, Labor Law, Economic Law, EuropeanLaw of Contracts or the Right to a Healthy Environment).The crystallization of the constitutionalization notion is carried out by reporting toother terms, so as to configure the delimitation of the concept. In order to delimit theconcept of constitutionalization we conducted a reporting to codification,constitutionalism, conventionality and constitutionality, underlining the existingdiscrepancies between these terms. It is estimated that there are seven stages ofconstitutionalization: 1) rigid constitution, 2) jurisdictional guaranteeing of theConstitution, 3) the compulsory force of the Constitution, 4) ”over-interpretation” ofthe Constitution, 5) interpretation of laws in accordance with the Constitution, 6)direct application of constitutional norms, 7) influence of the Constitution on politicalreports.The binary structure of the doctorate thesis proposes the analysis of theconstitutionalization phenomenon from a dual perspective: the premises ofconstitutionalization (materialized in the supremacy of the Constitution, theconstitutional grounds of criminal law, as well as constitutional guarantees in criminalmatters), and the proper constitutionalization of criminal law (which we equallystructured on the means of achievement of constitutionalization and the effects of thisphenomenon).

Le Brésil, comme tous les pays en voie de développement, est très sensible à l'investissement étranger, qui stimule son industrie et son commerce, intérieur et extérieur. En même temps, la sécurité juridique est donc une clé dans le processus d'affirmation du commerce international brésilien, notamment aux yeux de l'UE et la France, et garantit un développement continu et durable du pays. Dans ce contexte, déjà en 2001, plusieurs aspects politiques et juridiques ont été cités par la Banque Mondiale et le Gouvernement Français comme étant une barrière à l'investissement : la bureaucratie, le coût de la main d'œuvre, la fiscalité, le transfert de technologie, le respect aux contrats et les accords internationaux. La présente étude vise à contribuer au développement de la relation entre le Brésil et les investisseurs franco-européens, en apportant à ceux-ci une meilleure compréhension du système juridique brésilien, à travers l'analyse comparée du contrat de franchise, lequel exige une étude plus approfondie grâce à sa complexité, plus particulièrement en matière de droit des obligations, de la concurrence, et de la propriété intellectuelle. / As any other developing country, Brazil is very sensitive concerning foreign investments, which stimulates its industry and commerce, domestically or cross borders. At the same time, legal safety is one of the keys in this Brazilian international commerce consolidation, especially vis-à-vis Europe and France, in order to ensure a sustainable and continuous development of the country. In this context, in 2001 already, several political and legal aspects were mentioned by the World Bank and the French Government as true barriers to foreign investment : bureaucracy, work force cost, taxation, technology transfer, and the respect to contracts and international treaties. The present essay aims to contribute to the development of the relationship between Brazil and the franco-european investors, by providing a better comprehension of the Brazilian legal system, through a comparative analysis of the franchising agreement, which demands deeper studies in view of its complexity, concerning particularly contract law, competition and intellectual property.

This thesis compares legislation of limited liability company in the Czech Republic and Spain. The thesis mainly focuses on the following areas: the basic characteristics and assumptions for the constitution of company, the constitution of the company, the legal status of partners, corporate bodies, termination of the company. At the end it describes the special legal form of limited liability company in Spain called Sociedad Limitada Nueva Empresa.

This article analyzes the definitions of the main taxable events for the Value-Added Tax (VAT) based on a comparative approach to thelegislation of different countries (Spain, Mexico, Chile, Colombia, Argentina and Peru). In this regard, it analyzes which legislations offer definitions according to the principles of generality, fiscal neutrality and legal certainty for VAT. Moreover, it points out that the VAT systems of those countries do not require as a condition for the configuration of the taxable events that the transactions involve a «value added» or a final consumption. In the specificcase of «supplies of goods», the VAT systems have a similar definition of the taxable event, although there are a few differences. However, in the case of«supplies of services», which is the most important taxable event for VAT, there are important differences at the time each country defines it. This is not a desirable effect for the international trade of services, since the lack of harmonization produces double taxation or double non taxation. / El trabajo aborda la definición de los hechos gravados principalesen el Impuesto al Valor Agregado (IVA) en el derecho comparado (España, México, Chile, Colombia, Argentina y Perú), evaluando qué legislaciones proponen una definición conforme a los principios de generalidad, deneutralidad y de seguridad jurídica. Destaca que ninguna de las legislaciones exige como condición para la configuración de los hechos gravados que setrate de transacciones que generen «valor agregado» o que se trate de bienes o servicios susceptibles de consumo final. En el caso de la venta de bienes muebles, hay coincidencia en la definición del hecho gravado, aunque con matices de diferencia. En cambio, en la definición de servicios, que es la hipótesis más importante del impuesto, hay grandes diferencias entre las legislaciones. Ello definitivamente no es deseable, considerando el comercio internacional de servicios, por cuanto la falta de armonización produce fenómenos de doble imposición y doble no imposición.

En dévoilant les violences sexuelles qu’elles subissent, les femmes exposent les droits que les hommes auteurs de ces violences, s’arrogent sur leur personne et les pouvoirs dont ils disposent. L’intervention du droit pénal dans ce domaine implique donc un positionnement du législateur puis des magistrat.es quant à ces droits et pouvoirs. L’objet de cette recherche est d’une part d’analyser, dans une perspective critique féministe, comment le droit pénal et les institutions judiciaires appréhendent des violences sexuelles masculines telles que le viol, l’agression sexuelle et le harcèlement sexuel. Puis, d’autre part, en s’appuyant sur le droit international et sur une approche comparatiste, de réfléchir aux changements légaux et de politique pénale nécessaires afin que les femmes victimes de violences sexuelles masculines puissent compter sur un droit pénal plus juste. / By disclosing the sexual violence they endure, women expose the rights that perpetrators claim and the power they wield. Penal law dealing with sexual violence therefore requires that legislators and judges take a stand as to those rights and power. This research analyzes, from a feminist perspective, how penal law and the legal system comprehend sexual violence such as rape, sexual assault and sexual harassment. Relying on international law and a comparative approach, it considers how our legal system could be changed to provide justice for women.

With the changes that have taken place in the world during the spring of 2020 in the wake of the Covid-19 pandemic has affected and had consequences in the Swedish labour market. As a result, the global crisis has brought the needs of the layoff institution to the fore again. A workplace can due to for various reasons, experience a temporary decline in the need for labour. One way to address this has traditionally been resorting to layoffs. The term of layoff means that an employer has the opportunity to temporary layoff employees. The purpose of this study was to contribute with a deeper understanding of the regulation of layoff in Sweden and to achieve this a comparative study was made through Norway’s legal rules on layoff, in the hope of contributing new knowledge in the subject for Swedish regulation. The results of this study are that there are many similarities in the employment law regulations regarding layoff in Sweden and Norway, but also some differences such as the form of legal regulations, the importance of the layoff-institute, cost distribution, collective agreements and the role of the managerial prerogative. The Swedish legal system is more intrusive in managerial prerogative than the Norwegian layoff-institute can be stated to be. The Swedish regulation places higher demands on employers, in comparison with the Norwegian regulation which focuses more on employers' right to decide whether layoffs should take place.

This doctoral thesis is at the intersection of law and technology by focusing on the ethical governance of private companies on the topic of discrimination. It centers on algorithmic and intentional discrimination. It aimed to determine whether the European Union and Federal USA law are equipped to address discrimination in the provision of work, goods, and services online. Through and extensive analyses of sources that included private company practices, private anti-discrimination policies, collective and private litigation, court decisions, public regulation at the EU, Member State levels, and United States, this thesis argued that statutory law and legal precedents in the European Union and United States are only partially equipped to address discrimination against statutorily protected classes. The author of this thesis inferred from the selected sources that the main obstacles to the full implementation of the equality principle rely on businesses' structural challenges, including aesthetic design, matching tools, evaluation systems, and network effect of online platforms that ultimately reinforce old biases against protected classes. Furthermore, rigid and more flexible regimes of liability immunities to online intermediaries results in the lack of incentive for structural changes. Finally, in the light of these structural challenges, this thesis asserts that the fight against discrimination in online platforms might produce the best results when also oriented by a model of regulation that encourages online platforms to implement the principle of transparency and fairness in their interactions with users, coupled with the cooperation of anti-discrimination bodies and private businesses. / Doctorat en Sciences juridiques / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Thesis (LLD (Public Law))—University of Stellenbosch, / In this dissertation a comparative study is made of the constitutional accommodation of the distribution of financial resources and constitutional obligations to the various spheres of government in Germany and South Africa. Both countries have decentralised or multi-level systems of government and can be classified, in terms of current studies on federalism, as integrated or cooperative federal systems. An overview of the historical developments, the political contexts, the fundamental principles and the constitutional frameworks for government in Germany and South Africa is provided as a basis for the in-depth analysis regarding the financial intergovernmental relations in these countries. This study has shown that economic theory is important in the design of decentralised systems of government and that political and socio-economic considerations, for example, the need for rebuilding Germany after World War II and the need to eliminate severe poverty in South Africa after 1994, often play a dominant role in the design and implementation of decentralised constitutional systems. The economic theory applicable to decentralised systems of government suggests a balanced approach to the distribution of financial resources and constitutional obligations with a view to obtaining the most efficient and equitable solution. In both countries the particular constitutional allocation of obligations and financial resources created a fiscal gap that required some form of revenue sharing or financial equalisation. The German financial equalisation system has been developed over fifty years and is quite complex. It attempts to balance the constitutional aim of reasonable equalisation of the financial disparity of the Länder with the financial autonomy of the Länder as required by the Basic Law. The huge financial and economic demands from the eastern Länder after unification in 1990 placed an additional burden on the available funds and on the financial equalisation system. Germany currently faces reform of its financial equalisation system and possibly also bigger constitutional reform. The South African constitutional system is only a decade old and the financial equalisation system that is less complex than the German system, is functioning reasonably well but needs time to develop to its full potential. The system may however require some adjustment in order to enhance accountability, efficiency and equity. A lack of sufficient skills and administrative capacity at municipal government level and in some provinces hampers service delivery and good governance and places additional pressure on the financial equalisation system. The Bundesverfassungsgericht and the Constitutional Court play important roles in Germany and South Africa in upholding the principle of constitutional supremacy, and make a valuable contribution to the better understanding of the constitutional systems and the further development thereof. This study has shown that clear principles in constitutional texts, for example, such as those contained in the Basic Law, guide the development of applicable financial legislation and add value to the provisions on financial equalisation and how they are implemented. These principles in the Basic Law are justiciable and give the Bundesverfassungsgericht an important tool to adjudicate the financial equalisation legislation. The study of the constitutional accommodation of the distribution of financial resources and constitutional obligations in Germany and South Africa is not an abstract academic exercise and should be seen in the particular political and socio-economic contexts within which the respective constitutions function. The need to give effect to the realisation of socio-economic rights, for example, the right of access to health services, places additional demands on the financial equalisation system. The South African society experienced a major transformation from the apartheid system to a democratic constitutional order that in itself has had a significant influence on financial intergovernmental relations. This dissertation focuses on a distinct part of constitutional law that can be described as financial constitutional law. This comparative analysis of the two countries has provided some lessons for the further development of South Africa’s young democracy, in particular the financial intergovernmental relations system.

Thesis (LLM)--Stellenbosch University, 2004. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The problem of mistake and its impact on the formation of contract is a central issue in the law of contract of all legal systems. The thesis investigates this area by considering the manner in which it has been dealt with in Germany and South African law. Although both legal systems are of the civilian origin. The German law is a codified system, whereas South African law is an uncodified one in which in the absence of legislation, legal problems are resolved by decisions of the High Court operating under a strict doctrine of legal precedent. German law does not in a formal sense acknowledge that judges can make law, but the thesis demonstrates the considerable weight that is nevertheless attached to judicial decisions in practice. The impact of differences in legal methodology on substantive law is a principal theme of the investigation. It is addressed by means of a systematic comparison between the manner in which the two systems deal with concepts such as heiuristic act and declarations of will, the notion of contract and the relevance of offer and acceptance as its constituent elements. Thereafter the broad topic of mistake as a circumstance that vitiates agreement and other defects of will such as deceit, duress and undue influence are considered. Whereas German law as a codified system presents a comprehensive regulation of the issues, a case law system such as that of South Africa can only deal with matters brought before the courts by parties engaged in a dispute. Because judges also tend to frame decisions as narrowly as possible, such a system characterised by gaps in the law in relations to issues that have not been authoritatively determined. The resultant uncertainty is exacerbated by the fact that different courts might decide the same issue differently and that a considerable period of time might elapse before the issue is settled by the highest court in the judicial hierarchy. In regard to matters of substance, both systems proceed from a common conceptual framework, but often tend to emphasise different aspects in coming to solutions. German law places great store on the notion of the declaration of will, a concept which is analysed in considerable detail in relation to its treatment in South African law. Although South African law recognises the notion of a juristic act, there is no sign of the refined and systematic discussion of the concept along the lines of German law. In consequence, concepts such as offer and acceptance play a less important role in South African law. In relation to the treatment of mistake as well the greater emphasis of German law on the declarations of will is in marked contrast to the more subjective approach of South African law and its resort to a theory of reliance as a corrective liability in cases of disagreement. Both systems adopt an approach with subjective and objective elements. but with a different mix of these elements in each instance. An overriding conclusion is that both systems might have erred in placing too great an emphasis on objective elements in the determination of when contractual liability should be imposed. It is contended that renewed attention to the doctrine of culpa in contrahendo might enable both South African and German law to deal more satisfactorily with the problem of disagreement in contract. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die probleem van dwaling en die uitwerking daarvan op kontraksluiting is 'n sentrale vraagstuk van die kontraktereg van alle lande. Die proefskrif ondersoek hierdie problematiek deur die hantering daarvan in sowel die Duitse as die Suid-Afrikaanse reg te oorweeg. Alhoewel beide hierdie stelsels van romanisriese oorsprong is, is die Duitse 'n gekodifiseerde en die Suid-Afrikaanse 'n ongekodifiseerde stelsel. In die afwesigheid van wetgewing, word regsprobleme in Suid-Afrika aan die hand van die gemenereg deur middel van beslissings van die hoë hof opgelos ingevolge 'n strenge presedentestelsel. Alhoewel die Duitse reg nie formeel erken dat regterlike beslissings regskeppend kan werk nie, toon die proefskrif aan dat daar tog in die praktyk groot gewig aan regterlike uitsprake geheg word. Die uitwerking van hierdie metodologiese verskille is 'n hooftema van die ondersoek. Dit geskied by wyse van 'n sistemariese vergelyking van die hantering in die twee stelsels van begrippe soos die regshandeling en die wilsverklaring. die kontrak en die rol van aanbod en aanname as konstituterende elemente van 'n kontrak. Hierna kom die breë vraagstuk van dwaling aan die orde as 'n omstandigheid war wilsooreenstemming ondermyn, asook die samehangende kwessies van bedrog, dwang en onbehoorlike beïnvloeding. Alhoewel beide stelsels in substantiewe aangeleenthede uitgaan van 'n gemeenskaplike konseptueie raamwerk. word aangetoon dat by die bereik van oplossings, die klem dikwels heel verskillend geplaas word. Van sentrale belang is vir die Duitse reg is die wilsverklaringsbegrip, wat in vergelyking met die behandeling daarvan. In Suid-Afrika in groot besonderhede ontleed word. Alhoewel die Suid-Afrikaanse reg, soos die Duitse reg uitgaan van die begrip regshandeling, ontbreek die genuanseerde en sistemariese behandeling van die Duitse reg. As gevolg hiervan speel die begrippe aanbod en aanname 'n relatief mlnder belangrike rol in die Suid-Afrikaanse reg. Met betrekking tot die dwalingsproblematiek ook is die groter klem op die Duitse reg op die wilsverklaring van die partye opvallend en in skerp teenstelling, tot die meer subjektiewe benadering van die Suid- Afrikaanse reg en die aanwending van die vertrouensteorie as 'n korrektiewe aanspreeklikheid in gevalle van 'n gebrek aan wilsooreesntemming. Alhoewel albei stelsels erkenning gee aan subjektiewe en objektiewe elemente, is daar verskille vir sover dit die relatiewe klem op elkeen aangaan. Die oorkoepelende gevolgtrekking is dat albei stelsels miskien te veel gewig gee aan die objektiewe element by die bepaling van aanspreeklikheid. Die voorstel is dat daar weer met vrug na die leerstuk van culpa in contrahendo gekyk sou kon word.