Neste trabalho foram preparados híbridos PtRu/Carbono e Ni/Carbono pelo método da carbonização hidrotérmica para aplicação na oxidação eletroquímica do metanol. Nesse processo, uma fonte de carbono e os sais metálicos, em meio aquoso, foram submetidos ao tratamento hidrotérmico a 200 ºC em uma autoclave. Na preparação dos híbridos PtRu/Carbono foram estudados o uso de diferentes agentes para ajuste do pH do meio reacional, a influência da adição de surfactante, a razão atômica Pt:Ru, a fonte de carbono, a carga metálica e o tempo de síntese. Para os híbridos Ni/Carbono estudaram-se parâmetros como a fonte de carbono e a adição de brometo de cetiltrimetilamônio. Os materiais obtidos foram caracterizados por espectroscopia de energia dispersiva de raios-X, difração de raios-X (DRX), microscopia eletrônica de transmissão, análise termogravimétrica, isotermas de B.E.T, espectroscopia no infravermelho com transformada de Fourier e voltametria cíclica. Os materiais foram testados para a oxidação eletroquímica do metanol voltametria cíclica, cronoamperometria e em células unitárias operando diretamente com metanol. Os híbridos PtRu/Carbono como-sintetisados não apresentaram atividade na oxidação do metanol. Após tratamento térmico a 900 oC, os materiais tornaram-se ativos e o melhor desempenho foi obtido para o material preparado utilizando celulose, hidróxido de tetrapropilamônio para ajuste do pH do meio reacional e carga metálica nominal de 5% em massa. Os resultados indicam que a atividade dos híbridos PtRu/Carbono, provavelmente, está relacionada à estrutura de poros, tamanho de partícula e presença de rutênio segregado. Os híbridos PtRu/Carbono foram tratados termicamente resultando em um material contendo carbono amorfo e grafítico. Os eletrocatalisadores PtRu/C preparados utilizando os híbridos Ni/Carbono como suporte mostraram-se mais ativos que os preparados utilizando o carbono comercial Vulcan XC72, considerado referência na área. / PtRu/Carbon and Ni/Carbon hybrid materials were prepared by hydrothermal carbonization process for application in the electro-oxidation of methanol. In this process, a carbon source and metal salts in aqueous solution were subjected to hydrothermal treatment at 200oC in an autoclave. In the preparation of hybrids PtRu/Carbon it was studied the use of different agents to adjust pH of the reaction medium, the influence of the addition of surfactant, the atomic ratio Pt: Ru, the source of carbon, the metallic charge and the synthesis time. For the hybrid Ni/Carbon it was studied parameters such as the carbon source and addition of cetyltrimethylammonium bromide. The obtained materials were characterized by energy dispersive X-ray, X-ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, BET isotherms, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and cyclic voltammetry. The materials were tested for methanol electro-oxidation by cyclic voltammetry and chronoamperometry and in fuel cell operating directly with methanol. Hybrids PtRu/Carbon as-synthesized showed no activity for methanol electro-oxidation. After thermal treatment at 900oC, the materials become active and the best performance was obtained for the material prepared using cellulose as a carbon source, tetrapropylammonium hydroxide to adjust the pH of the reaction medium and nominal metal loading of 5 wt%. The results showed that the activity of the hybrids PtRu/Carbon appears to be related to pore volume, mesoporous structure, particle size and presence of segregated ruthenium. Hybrids Ni/Carbon heat-treated at 900oC resulted in a material containing amorphous and graphite carbon. The PtRu / C prepared using Ni / Carbon as support was more active than those prepared using commercial carbon Vulcan XC72, considered as a reference.

O extrato pirolenhoso é uma substância orgânica resultante da condensação da fumaça gerada durante a carbonização da madeira ou de outras fontes de matéria-prima vegetal, sendo constituído por, pelo menos, 80% de água e dezenas de compostos, dentre os quais se incluem substâncias fenólicas, aldeídos e ácidos orgânicos. Portanto, não seria utópico supor-se que nessa gama de compostos possam estar incluídas substâncias que apresentem propriedades conservantes para aplicações na área cosmética e de saneantes. É nessa direção que se avaliou o potencial de utilização do extrato pirolenhoso da madeira de eucalipto. Especificamente, houve a intenção de se estudar as características e propriedades do extrato pirolenhoso obtido dessa madeira levando-se em conta duas fontes distintas; avaliar em particular suas propriedades antifúngicas, e as possibilidades do uso do extrato pirolenhoso como conservante, na substituição de ingredientes como, por exemplo, o formaldeído, ainda hoje utilizado na indústria em formulações de produtos cosméticos e atualmente proibido em produtos saneantes, segundo nova resolução RDC 35/08 da ANVISA. Os compostos químicos presentes am ambos os extratos foram identificados mediante análises em cromatógrafo acoplado a espectrômetro de massa (GC/MS). De forma geral, as análises dos extratos demonstraram a presença de uma gama de compostos oxigenados, tais como ácidos carboxílicos, ésteres, éteres e cetonas. Além disso, foram detectados fenol, guaicol e derivados fenólicos. O produto que apresentou o melhor potencial antifúngico foi o extrato pirolenhoso de uma das fontes estudadas. / Pyroligneous extract is an organic substance resulting from the condensation of the smoke generated during the carbonization of wood or other vegetable raw material, consisting of at least 80% of water and many compounds including: phenolic substances, aldehydes and organic acids. It would not be utopian, therefore, to assume that, in this gamma of compounds there could be substances having preservative properties for cosmetic and sanitizing products. This study evaluates the potential of the pyroligneous extract of eucalyptus wood. Specifically, the characteristics and properties of the pyroligneous extract from eucalyptus wood from two distinct sources; to evaluate in particular its antifungal proprieties and the possibility of using the pyroligneous extract as a preservative. This would substitute, for example, the formaldehyde currently used in the cosmetic industry. In fact formaldehyde has now been forbidden in sanitizing products; resolution RDC 35/08 of ANVISA. The chemical compounds of both extracts were identified by analyses of a gaseous chromatograph connected to the mass spectrometer (GC/MS). In general, the analysis of extracts demonstrated the presence of oxygenated components gamma such as carboxylic acids, esters, ethers and ketenes. Moreover, phenol, guaicol and phenol derivatives were detected. The product that showed better potential antifungal results was the pyroligneous extract from one of the studied sources.

Cette thèse est focalisée sur la contribution de l'étude couplée de l’organisation multi-échelle et de la composition isotopique de C et N des carbones de météorites différenciées (acapulcoites – lodranites (A-L)), pour mieux comprendre l’histoire de leur corps-parent. Nous avons systématiquement combiné observations des carbones de ces météorites avec des analogues expérimentaux. Nous avons développé une méthodologie originale couplant l'étude de l'organisation des échelles micrométriques à nanométriques (par Microscopie Electronique par Transmission et Microspectrométrie Raman) et l'analyse isotopique des carbones (par SIMS) sur rigoureusement les mêmes plages de dimensions micrométriques. La comparaison avec les mélanges expérimentaux indique que le graphite d’Acapulco s’est formé par un mode de graphitisation "catalysée par le fer". L’absence de graphitisation des carbones de Lodran dans un environnement riche en fer et chaud est apparemment paradoxale. Toutes nos observations peuvent être réconciliées si nous considérons une collision tardive du corps-parent des A-L avec un corps chondritique apportant matière organique insoluble et chaleur d'impact. Ce scénario est conforté par les analyses isotopiques qui indiquent une formation des carbones des A-L par carbonisation d’un précurseur chondritique et une migration d’effluents carbonés au sein du corps-parent / This thesis is focused on the contribution of the coupling of multi-scale organization and C, N isotopic composition of carbons in differentiated meteorites (acapulcoites – lodranites (A-L)), in order to better understand the history of their parent body. We systematically combined observations of carbons from these meteorites with experimental analogues. We developed an original methodology associating the study of the organization at the micrometre to nanometre scales (by Transmission Electron Microscopy and by Raman Microspectrometry), and the analysis of the isotopic composition of carbons (by SIMS) on strictly the same areas of micrometre dimensions. The comparison with experimental analogues indicates that the Acapulco graphite was formed by a "catalytic" graphitization mode. The absence of graphite in Lodran, in an iron-rich and hot environment, is apparently paradoxical. All our observations can be reconciled if we consider a late collision of the A-L parent body with a chondritic body bringing insoluble organic matter and impact heat. This scenario is strengthened by isotopic analyses, which indicate formation of A-L carbons by carbonization of a chondritic precursor and migration of carbonaceous effluents within the parent-body

Submitted by Márcio Justi Laranja (marciojusti21@gmail.com) on 2018-05-28T15:19:36Z No. of bitstreams: 1 dissertação(versão final).pdf: 4313795 bytes, checksum: fef2f9c53ba336958ef95fc671df0d72 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Paula Torres Monteiro da Torres (paulatms@sjrp.unesp.br) on 2018-05-28T16:41:46Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 laranja_mj_me_sjrp_int.pdf: 4313795 bytes, checksum: fef2f9c53ba336958ef95fc671df0d72 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-05-28T16:41:46Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 laranja_mj_me_sjrp_int.pdf: 4313795 bytes, checksum: fef2f9c53ba336958ef95fc671df0d72 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2018-05-18 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / A carbonização hidrotérmica (CHT) é um processo de conversão termoquímica, capaz de usar uma biomassa úmida como matéria-prima e convertê-la em um produto sólido rico em carbono orgânico, denominado carvão hidrotérmico, passível de aplicação ao solo. No processo também é obtida como produto uma fração líquida contendo uma variedade de compostos orgânicos de interesse comercial e/ou tóxicos ao ambiente, denominada água de processo. Nesse trabalho, bagaço de cana e/ou vinhaça foram submetidos ao processo de CHT, sob diferentes condições reacionais. Assim, foram avaliados os efeitos do tipo de biomassa e das variáveis do processo (tempo, temperatura e porcentagem de adição de ácido fosfórico) sobre a composição do carvão hidrotérmico e da água de processo, em relação aos compostos orgânicos semivoláteis (SVOC) e voláteis (VOC). Para isso, foi realizada a extração de SVOC no carvão hidrotérmico e na água de processo utilizando extração ultrassônica e extração líquido-líquido, respectivamente. Já os VOC foram extraídos com o método do headspace associado à microextração em fase sólida (HS-SPME). Os compostos orgânicos foram identificados por cromatografia em fase gasosa acoplada à espectrometria de massas (GC-MS). Os principais SVOC identificados no carvão hidrotérmico foram fenóis, ácidos carboxílicos, cetonas e compostos nitrogenados, indicando que este material contém funções orgânicas importantes e incorporação de nitrogênio, sendo estas características desejáveis para uma possível aplicação em solo. O tipo de biomassa carbonizada, a temperatura e adição de ácido fosfórico (H3PO4) durante o processo CHT mostraram ter grande influência nos SVOC identificados tanto no carvão hidrotérmico quanto na água de processo, enquanto o efeito do tempo não foi significativo. Condições de temperatura elevada e maior porcentagem de H3PO4 promoveram, respectivamente, maior aromatização e funcionalização do carvão hidrotérmico. Além disso, a adição de ácido na CHT provocou a diminuição de compostos fenólicos e furânicos e aumento de ácidos carboxílicos e cetonas na água de processo. Os principais VOC identificados foram aldeídos, cetonas, fenóis, furanos e compostos nitrogenados. O aumento da temperatura promoveu a degradação dos aldeídos e aumento de cetonas e fenóis no carvão hidrotérmico. Já a adição de H3PO4 afetou a degradação dos compostos nitrogenados no carvão hidrotérmico e na água de processo. / Hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) is a thermochemical conversion process, able to use a moisture biomass as raw material and convert it into a solid product rich in organic carbon, called hydrochar, amenable to application to the soil. In the process, a liquid fraction is also obtained as product containing a variety of organic compounds, of commercial interest and/or toxic to the environment, called process water. In this work, sugarcane bagasse and vinasse were submitted to the HTC process, in different reaction conditions. Thus, the effects of the biomass type and the process variables were evaluated (time, temperature and percentage of phosphoric acid addition) on the composition of hydrochar and process water in the case of semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOC) and volatile organic compounds (VOC). For this, the SVOC extraction from the hydrochar and the process water were performed using ultrasonic extraction and liquid-liquid extraction, respectively. The VOC extraction was performed by headspace-solid phase microextraction (HS-SPME) method. The identification of organic compounds was performed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The SVOC were identified, with mainly phenols, carboxylic acids, ketones and nitrogen compounds obtained, indicating that the hydrochar produced contains important organic functions and nitrogen incorporation into the material, desirable characteristics for a soil application. The pattern of SVOC obtained both in hydrochar and in process water showed great dependence on the type of carbonized biomass and with the carbonization temperature and phosphoric acid addition, while the effect of time was not significant. High temperature and higher H3PO4 percentage conditions promoted, respectively, greater aromatization and functionalization of the hydrochar. Furthermore, the addition of acid in HTC caused the decrease of phenolic compounds and furans and increased carboxylic acids and ketones in process water. The VOC were identified, with mainly aldehydes, ketones, phenols, furans and nitrogen compounds. The increase in temperature promoted degradation of aldehydes and increase of ketones and phenols in the hydrochar. On the other hand, the H3PO4 addiction affected the degradation of the nitrogen compounds in the hydrochar and process water.

Submitted by Celso Magalhaes (celsomagalhaes@ufrrj.br) on 2018-04-04T13:50:36Z No. of bitstreams: 1 2017 - Guilherme Raymundo Sa.pdf: 3173899 bytes, checksum: 9c3276f740106907243c1c187bbc9d77 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-04-04T13:50:36Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2017 - Guilherme Raymundo Sa.pdf: 3173899 bytes, checksum: 9c3276f740106907243c1c187bbc9d77 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-08-28 / Zeolites are microporous aluminosilicates and have assumed the position of most important catalysts in the chemical industry. However, these microporous materials have the limitation of the diffusion of molecules with larger kinetic diameter. Hybrid materials with hierarchical arrangement of pores in the micro-mesoporous scale have attracted great attention and interest in the last decades because they present acidic activity similar to the microporous zeolites and ordered pore diameter of the mesoporous materials. Beta zeolite can be used in a number of applications, including refining, petrochemical and biomass. The generation of mesopores in the beta zeolite enables higher yields by improving mass transfer in the FCC process. In this work, samples of the mesoporous material SBA-15 were synthesized and used as a source of silica for the synthesis of the mesoporous beta zeolite using the Dry Gel Conversion (DGC) technique. Samples of SBA-15 were submitted to three carbonization methods, using as carbon source sucrose, the organic template and both, in order to fill their pores with carbonaceous material and to prevent the collapse of its structure. The aluminization samples were studied at two times, before and during the dry gel synthesis. Three crystallization times were studied. X-ray diffraction (XRD), N2 adsorption / desorption, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and infrared absorption spectroscopy with Fourier transform (FTIR) were used to characterize the samples. The results indicated that there was formation of zeolite beta presenting mesoporosity for the carbonization method that used only the template as carbon source. These samples showed BEA crystalline structure confirmed by XRD and FTIR analysis and formation of isotherms with type I and IV characteristics, with BET area greater than 500 m? / g, a volume of micropores close to 0.20 cm3 / g and with a volume of mesopores greater than 0.15 cm 3 / g. The other carbonization methods formed an amorphous phase, materials with low crystallinity and formation of polymorphs B and C over polymorph A. The samples presented the formation of mesoporosity did not present the mesopores present in the SBA-15, indicating collapse of the structure during the process of dry gel conversion / Ze?litas s?o aluminossilicatos microporosos e assumiram a posi??o de catalisadores mais importantes na ind?stria qu?mica. Entretanto, esses materiais microporosos possuem a limita??o da difus?o de mol?culas com di?metro cin?tico maior. Os materiais h?bridos com arranjo hier?rquico de poros na escala micro-mesoporosa atra?ram grande aten??o e interesses nas ?ltimas d?cadas pois apresentam atividade ?cida similar ?s ze?litas microporosas e di?metro de poros ordenados dos materiais mesoporosos. A ze?lita Beta pode ser usada em diversas aplica??es, incluindo o refino, a petroqu?mica e o processamento de biomassa. A gera??o de mesoporos na ze?lita beta possibilita maior rendimento melhorando a transfer?ncia de massa no processo de FCC. Neste trabalho foram sintetizadas amostras do material mesoporoso SBA-15 e utilizadas como fonte de s?lica para a s?ntese da ze?lita beta mesoporosa em meio seco utilizando a t?cnica de Dry Gel Conversion (DGC). As amostras de SBA-15 foram submetidas a tr?s m?todos de carboniza??o, utilizando como fonte de carbono sacarose, o direcionador de estrutura e ambos, com o objetivo de preencher seus poros com material carbon?ceo e evitar o colapso de sua estrutura. A aluminiza??o das amostras foi estudada em dois momentos, antes e durante a s?ntese do gel seco. Foram estudados tr?s tempos de cristaliza??o. Para caracteriza??o das amostras foram utilizadas as t?cnicas de difra??o de raios-X (DRX), adsor??o/dessor??o de N2, resson?ncia magn?tica nuclear (RMN), microscopia eletr?nica de varredura (MEV) e espectroscopia de absor??o no infra vermelho com transformada de Fourier (FTIR). Os resultados indicaram que houve a forma??o de ze?lita beta apresentando mesoporosidade para o m?todo de carboniza??o que utilizou apenas o direcionador de estrutura como fonte de carbono. Estas amostras apresentaram estrutura cristalina BEA confirmado pelas an?lises de DRX e FTIR e forma??o de isotermas com caracter?sticas do tipo I e IV, com ?rea BET superior a 500m?/g, um volume de microporos pr?ximos de 0,20 cm3/g e com um volume de mesoporos superior a 0,15 cm3/g. Os demais m?todos de carboniza??o formaram uma fase amorfa, materiais de baixa cristalinidade e com forma??o dos polimorfos B e C em detrimento ao polimorfo A. Os melhores resultados foram obtidos com o tempo de cristaliza??o de 48 horas. As amostras apresentando a forma??o de mesoporosidade n?o apresentaram os mes n?o apresentaram os mes n?o apresentaram os mesn?o apresentaram os mes n?o apresentaram os mesn?o apresentaram os mes n?o apresentaram os mes n?o apresentaram os mesn?o apresentaram os mes n?o apresentaram os mes n?o apresentaram os mes oporos presentes na SBA oporos presentes na SBA oporos presentes na SBA oporos presentes na SBA oporos presentes na SBA oporos presentes na SBA oporos presentes na SBAoporos presentes na SBAoporos presentes na SBAoporos presentes na SBA-15, indicando colapso da 15, indicando colapso da 15, indicando colapso da 15, indicando colapso da 15, indicando colapso da 15, indicando colapso da 15, indicando colapso da 15, indicando colapso da 15, indicando colapso da estrutura estrutura estrutura durante o processo de s?ntese seca

The underlying motivation for the work carried out for this thesis was the growing need for more sustainable technologies. The aim was to synthesize a “palette” of functional nanomaterials using the established technique of hydrothermal carbonization (HTC). The incredible diversity of HTC was demonstrated together with small but steady advances in how HTC can be manipulated to tailor material properties for specific applications. Two main strategies were used to modify the materials obtained by HTC of glucose, a model precursor representing biomass. The first approach was the introduction of heteroatoms, or “doping” of the carbon framework. Sulfur was for the first time introduced as a dopant in hydrothermal carbon. The synthesis of sulfur and sulfur/nitrogen doped microspheres was presented whereby it was shown that the binding state of sulfur could be influenced by varying the type of sulfur source. Pyrolysis may additionally be used to tune the heteroatom binding states which move to more stable motifs with increasing pyrolysis temperature. Importantly, the presence of aromatic binding states in the as synthesized hydrothermal carbon allows for higher heteroatom retention levels after pyrolysis and hence more efficient use of dopant sources. In this regard, HTC may be considered as an “intermediate” step in the formation of conductive heteroatom doped carbon. To assess the novel hydrothermal carbons in terms of their potential for electrochemical applications, materials with defined nano-architectures and high surface areas were synthesized via templated, as well as template-free routes. Sulfur and/or nitrogen doped carbon hollow spheres (CHS) were synthesized using a polystyrene hard templating approach and doped carbon aerogels (CA) were synthesized using either the albumin directed or borax-mediated hydrothermal carbonization of glucose. Electrochemical testing showed that S/N dual doped CHS and aerogels derived via the albumin approach exhibited superior catalytic performance compared to solely nitrogen or sulfur doped counterparts in the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) relevant to fuel cells. Using the borax mediated aerogel formation, nitrogen content and surface area could be tuned and a carbon aerogel was engineered to maximize electrochemical performance. The obtained sample exhibited drastically improved current densities compared to a platinum catalyst (but lower onset potential), as well as excellent long term stability. In the second approach HTC was carried out at elevated temperatures (550 °C) and pressure (50 bar), corresponding to the superheated vapor regime (htHTC). It was demonstrated that the carbon materials obtained via htHTC are distinct from those obtained via ltHTC and subsequent pyrolysis at 550 °C. No difference in htHTC-derived material properties could be observed between pentoses and hexoses. The material obtained from a polysaccharide exhibited a slightly lower degree of carbonization but was otherwise similar to the monosaccharide derived samples. It was shown that in addition to thermally induced carbonization at 550 °C, the SHV environment exhibits a catalytic effect on the carbonization process. The resulting materials are chemically inert (i.e. they contain a negligible amount of reactive functional groups) and possess low surface area and electronic conductivity which distinguishes them from carbon obtained from pyrolysis. Compared to the materials presented in the previous chapters on chemical modifications of hydrothermal carbon, this makes them ill-suited candidates for electronic applications like lithium ion batteries or electrocatalysts. However, htHTC derived materials could be interesting for applications that require chemical inertness but do not require specific electronic properties. The final section of this thesis therefore revisited the latex hard templating approach to synthesize carbon hollow spheres using htHTC. However, by using htHTC it was possible to carry out template removal in situ because the second heating step at 550 °C was above the polystyrene latex decomposition temperature. Preliminary tests showed that the CHS could be dispersed in an aqueous polystyrene latex without monomer penetrating into the hollow sphere voids. This leaves the stagnant air inside the CHS intact which in turn is promising for their application in heat and sound insulating coatings. Overall the work carried out in this thesis represents a noteworthy development in demonstrating the great potential of sustainable carbon materials. / Das Ziel der vorgelegten Arbeit war es, mit Hilfe der Hydrothermalen Carbonisierung (HTC) eine Palette an verschiedenen Materialien herzustellen, deren physikalische und chemische Eigenschaften auf spezifische Anwendungen zugeschnitten werden können. Die Motivation hierfür stellt die Notwendigkeit, Alternativen zu Materialien zu finden, die auf fossilen Brennstoffen basieren. Dabei stellen vor allem nachhaltige Energien eine der größten Herausforderungen der Zukunft dar. HTC ist ein mildes, nachhaltiges Syntheseverfahren welches prinzipiell die Nutzung von biologischen Rohstoffen (z. B. landwirtschaftlichen Abfallprodukten) für die Herstellung von wertvollen, Kohlenstoff-basierten Materialien erlaubt. Es wurden zwei verschiedene Ansätze verwendet, um hydrothermalen Kohlenstoff zu modifizieren. Zum einen wurde HTC unter „normalen“ Bedingungen ausgeführt, d. h. bei 180 °C und einem Druck von etwa 10 bar. Der Zucker Glukose diente in allen Fällen als Kohlenstoff Vorläufer. Durch Zugabe von stickstoff und /oder schwefelhaltigen Additiven konnte dotierte Hydrothermalkohle hergestellt werden. Dotierte Kohlenstoffe sind bereits für ihre positiven Eigenschaften, wie verbesserte Leitfähigkeit oder erhöhte Stabilität, bekannt. Zusätzlich zu Stickstoff dotierter Hydrothermalkohle, die bereits von anderen Gruppen hergestellt werden konnte, wurde in dieser Arbeit zum ersten Mal Schwefel in Hydrothermalkohle eingebaut. Außerdem wurden verschiedene Ansätze verwendet, um Oberfläche und definierte Morphologie der dotierten Materialien zu erzeugen, welche wichtig für elektrochemische Anwendungen sind. Schwefel- und/oder stickstoffdotierte Kohlenstoff Nanohohlkugeln sowie Kohlenstoff Aerogele konnten hergestellt werden. Mit Hilfe von einem zusätzlichen Pyrolyseschritt (d. h. Erhitzen unter Schutzgas) konnte die Leitfähigkeit der Materialien hergestellt werden, die daraufhin als Nichtmetall-Katalysatoren für Wasserstoff-Brennstoffzellen getestet wurden. Im zweiten Ansatz wurde HTC unter extremen Bedingungen ausgeführt, d. h. bei 550 °C und einem Druck von ca. 50 bar, welches im Wasser Phasendiagram dem Bereich des Heißdampfes entspricht. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass die so erhaltene Hydrothermalkohle ungewöhnliche Eigenschaften besitzt. So hat die Hochtemperatur-Hydrothermalkohle zwar einen hohen Kohlenstoffgehalt (mehr als 90 Massenprozent), enthält aber auch viele Wasserstoffatome und ist dadurch schlecht leitfähig. Da damit elektrochemische Anwendungen so gut wie ausgeschlossen sind, wurde die Hochtemperatur-Hydrothermalkohle für Anwendungen vorgesehen, welche chemische Stabilität aber keine Leitfähigkeit voraussetzen. So wurden beispielsweise Hochtemperatur-Kohlenstoff-Nanohohlkugeln synthetisiert, die großes Potential als schall- und wärmeisolierende Additive für Beschichtungen darstellen. Insgesamt konnten erfolgreich verschiedenste Materialien mit Hilfe von HTC hergestellt werden. Es ist zu erwarten, dass sie in Zukunft zu nachhaltigen Technologien und damit zu einem weiteren Schritt weg von fossilen Brennstoffen beitragen werden.

Activated Carbon was produced from strong cation-exchange resins, sulphonated styrene divinylbenzene copolymers originally in H+ form, by means of carbonization and steam activation in an electrical furnace. One macroporous resin produced by BAYER Chemicals Inc., Lewatit MonoPlus SP 112 H, was used in the research. Products of carbonization and activation were characterized by using BET, Mercury Porosimetry, Helium Pycnometry and SEM techniques. The effect of carbonization time and temperature on the BET surface areas of the resins were also investigated. Two sets of carbonization experiments (Set 1 and 2) were performed in which time and temperature were varied in order to study their effects on the BET surface areas of the products. In activation experiments (Set 3), carbonized ion-exchangers (600 oC, 1 hr) were activated with steam at 900&deg / C, changing the time of activation and the steam flow rate. The temperatures of the water bath used for steam generation were selected as 60&deg / C, 80&deg / C and 90&deg / C. The pore structures of activated carbons were determined by proper techniques. The volume and area of macropores in the pore diameter range of 8180-50 nm were determined by mercury intrusion porosimetry. Mesopore (in the range of 50-2 nm) areas and volumes were determined by N2 gas adsorption technique at -195.6oC, BET surface areas of the samples were also determined, in the relative pressure range of 0.05 to 0.02, by the same technique. The pore volume and the area of the micropores with diameters less than 2 nm were determined by CO2 adsorption measurements at 0oC by the application of Dubinin Radushkevich equation. In the experiments of Sets 1 and 2, the BET surface area results of the six different carbonization times ranging from 0.5 to 3 hours gave almost the same value with a maximum deviation of 5% from the average showing almost no effect on the areas of the products. In the experiments of Set 3 , the sample activated at 800&deg / C for 6 hrs had the highest BET area, 2130 m2/g, and the one activated at 800&deg / C for 1 hr had the lowest BET area 636 m2/g. N2 adsorption/ desorption isotherms showed no distinct hysteresis indicating a cylindrical geometry of the pores. Adsorption isotherms further indicated that the pores are both highly microporous and mesoporous. N2 (BET) and CO2 (D-R) surface areas of the samples were in the range of 636-2130m2/g and 853-1858 m2/g, respectively. Surface areas of the samples consisted of about 8-53% mesopores and 47-92% micropores.

Fundação de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais / Wood carbonization process releases a large amount of non-condensable gaseous waste. In its composition, also called as biogas, three components can be highlighted: methane (CH4), carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2), these are the elements responsible for accelerating of the greenhouse effect. Biogas is usually discarded without having any kind of recycling. That can be an important alternative for financial gain when it is reinserted into the process or even used as a fuel. Moreover, when burned, it can reduce significantly the environmental impacts. An analytic equation of chromatographic calibration was developed in this study. Also a heating curve was created capable to reproduce a carbonization process of industrial wood in laboratorial conditions. Flow and chromatographic analysis of biogas resulted from wood carbonization process were performed, pointing and measuring in laboratorial scale two of its main components: methane (CH4) (1% of the total volume) and carbon monoxide (CO) (4% of the total volume). Finally, the study demonstrated that a quantity of energy discarded to the atmosphere can be higher than 16 GJ, presenting a contribution to an ecological view for the coal sector, providing the reduction of environmental impacts and hence economic benefits to the companies involved. / O processo de carbonização da madeira libera uma grande quantidade de resíduos gasosos não condensáveis. Na constituição deste resíduo, também chamado de biogás, destacam-se três componentes: metano (CH4), monóxido de carbono (CO) e dióxido de carbono (CO2), elementos responsáveis na aceleração do efeito estufa. O biogás, geralmente é descartado sem que haja algum tipo de aproveitamento. Essa pode ser uma alternativa importante para ganhos financeiros quando este é reinserido no processo ou até mesmo utilizado como combustível. Além disso, quando queimado, reduz significativamente os impactos ambientais causados. Neste estudo desenvolvida uma equação analítica referente a calibração cromatográfica. Foi desenvolvida uma curva de aquecimento capaz de reproduzir o processo de carbonização da madeira industrial em laboratório. Foi realizada uma análise da vazão e cromatográfica do biogás resultante do processo de carbonização da madeira, identificando e mensurando em escala laboratorial dois de seus principais componentes metano (CH4) (1% do volume total) e monóxido de carbono (CO) (4% do volume total). Por fim, o estudo mostrou a quantidade de energia descartada à atmosfera pode ser superior a 16 GJ e com isso apresenta uma contribuição para vertentes sustentáveis do setor carvoeiro, proporcionando a redução dos impactos ambientais e consequentemente, possíveis ganhos econômicos às empresas envolvidas. / Doutor em Engenharia Mecânica

O processo de injeção pelas ventaneiras dos altos-fornos (Pulverized Coal Injection - PCI) é uma das tecnologias mais promissoras para a incorporação de biomassas termicamente tratadas na siderurgia e um dos meios de alcançar uma redução consistente nas emissões de CO2 no setor. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a combustibilidade e reatividade ao CO2 de biomassas de madeira e caroço de azeitona tratadas em laboratório desde temperaturas de torrefação (250°C) até de carbonização (450°C) e comparar com carvões típicos utilizados em PCI, correlacionando com as características ocorridas devido aos tratamentos térmicos. Além da caracterização química, as transformações devido aos tratamentos térmicos das biomassas foram avaliadas via testes de combustão em termobalança, técnicas de microscopia ótica e eletrônica, espectroscopia de infravermelho por transformada de Fourier (FTIR) e técnicas de adsorção para análise da porosidade. Testes de combustibilidade foram conduzidos em um forno de queda livre (Drop Tube Furnace - DTF) em atmosferas convencional (O2/N2) e de oxi-combustão (O2/CO2) e os chars resultantes destes testes foram caracterizados quanto à estrutura e à reatividade ao CO2 em termobalança. Além disso, foram feitos testes de reatividade ao CO2 de misturas de eucalipto termicamente tratado e carvões em termobalança. A torrefação manteve o alto teor de voláteis das biomassas, enquanto que as biomassas carbonizadas apresentaram teores de carbono e poder calorífico semelhantes aos dos carvões de mais alto rank, com as vantagens típicas de biomassas de manterem um baixo teor de cinzas e enxofre. No entanto, o elevado teor de álcalis e fósforo nas cinzas pode ser um fator limitante na composição de misturas para PCI. O tratamento térmico das biomassas levou a gradual decomposição dos componentes da madeira com uma progressiva homogeneização da estrutura celular, associada a um aumento de aromaticidade e porosidade. De uma maneira geral, quanto menor foi a temperatura de tratamento térmico das biomassas, maior foi o burnout obtido no DTF. Comparada à atmosfera convencional (O2/N2), a atmosfera de oxicombustão (O2/CO2) levou a maiores burnouts para os chars de todas as biomassas e carvões. As biomassas carbonizadas apresentaram burnouts mais elevados que o carvão de mais baixo rank e o caroço de azeitona carbonizado apresentou baixa conversão, equivalente a um carvão de alto rank. Os chars das biomassas torrefeitas apresentaram estruturas cenosféricas isotrópicas de elevada porosidade nas paredes enquanto que os chars das carbonizadas preservaram a morfologia apresentada nas amostras originais. Os chars das biomassas foram altamente porosos, com áreas superficiais de meso e microporos em média 15 e 5 vezes maior que os chars dos carvões, respectivamente. Com relação aos testes de reatividade ao CO2 em termobalança, em geral, a reatividade dos chars das biomassas torrefeitas foi maior do que a reatividade dos chars das biomassas carbonizadas e estes foram pelo menos 10 vezes mais reativos ao CO2 do que o chars do carvão de mais baixo rank. Além das maiores áreas superficiais, principalmente o ordenamento da estrutura carbonosa e a morfologia foram fundamentais nas diferenças de reatividade ao CO2 entre os chars das biomassas e dos carvões. As misturas do carvão de mais baixo rank com a biomassa carbonizada apresentaram os melhores resultados em termos de aditividade na reatividade ao CO2. / Pulverized Coal Injection (PCI) in the blast furnace tuyeres is a promising technology for incorporation of thermally-treated biomasses and it is a way to reduce CO2 emissions in ironmaking processes. The aim of this work was to evaluate combustibility and CO2 reactivity of laboratory torrefied (250°C) and carbonized (450°) olive stone and woody biomasses, comparing with typical PCI coals. The transformations produced in biomasses due to torrefaction and carbonization were evaluated by chemical analyses, combustion tests in thermobalance, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and optical and electron microscopy and adsorption techniques. Combustion experiments were carried out in a Drop Tube Furnace (DTF) under conventional (O2/N2) and oxy-fuel (O2/CO2) atmospheres and the chars collected were characterized by its structure and CO2 reactivity in thermobalance. Reactivity tests were also conducted in thermobalance with blends of thermally-treated eucalyptus and coals. Torrefied samples maintained high contents of volatile matter, typical of raw biomasses, while carbonized biomasses showed carbon contents and high heating values similar to that of high rank coals, retaining low ash and sulfur contents. However, its high alkali and phosphorus contents could be a limiting factor to the use in blends for PCI. The thermal treatments of biomasses lead to a gradual decomposition of wood components and to a progressive homogenization of cell structure, associated to an increase in aromaticity and porosity. In general, the lower the thermal treatment temperature, the higher was the burnout in the DTF. Compared to conventional atmosphere, oxy-fuel combustion led to the highest burnouts for all biomass chars. The carbonized biomasses showed higher burnouts than the high-volatile coal and olive stone showed burnouts similar to a low-volatile coal. The chars from the torrefied biomasses showed isotropic cenospheric structures with high porosity within the walls and the chars from the carbonized biomasses preserved the morphology seen in original carbonized samples. The biomass chars presented highly porosity, with micro and mesoporosity in average, 5 and 15 times greater than the coal chars, respectively. In relation to the CO2 reactivity tests, in general, the torrefied biomass chars were more reactive than the carbonized biomass chars. However, due to its higher surface areas, structure arrangement and morphology, the carbonized biomass chars were at least 10 times more reactive than the high-volatile coal chars. The blends of high-volatile coal and carbonized eucalyptus showed good additivity in the CO2 reactivity tests in thermobalance.

Submitted by Claudinei Pracidelli (cpracide@ipen.br) on 2016-04-08T12:32:34Z No. of bitstreams: 0 / Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-08T12:32:34Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 / Dissertação (Mestrado em Tecnologia Nuclear) / IPEN/D / Instituto de Pesquisas Energeticas e Nucleares - IPEN-CNEN/SP