[ES] Las zeolitas son sólidos cristalinos microporosos con canales y cavidades de tamaños moleculares, que pueden presentar gran variedad de estructuras y composición química, lo que las hace útiles como catalizadores en gran variedad de procesos químicos. En la presente tesis doctoral, se han estudiado en profundidad las propiedades estructurales de zeolitas con estructura RTH y MFI pura sílice y aluminosilicato, utilizando fundamentalmente la técnica de resonancia magnética nuclear (RMN). Además, se han estudiado catalizadores zeolíticos tipo Ag-FAU para una reacción de interés medioambiental como la Oxidación Catalítica Selectiva de NH3 (NH3-SCO). En esta tesis, las zeolitas tipo MFI y RTH se han sintetizado utilizando tetraalquilamonios y tetralquilfosfonios como ADEs y HF como agente mineralizante. Los resultados referentes a la zeolita MFI pura sílice indican que el ADE utilizado afecta al orden local de la estructura, a la distribución de flúor y a la formación de defectos de red. En la síntesis de la zeolita tipo MFI aluminosilicato, se ha observado que el ADE utilizado y la relación Si/Al produce diferencias significativas en los espectros de RMN de 27Al, que se atribuyen normalmente a variaciones en la distribución del aluminio en diferentes sitios cristalográficos. Sin embargo, las diferencias desaparecen después de la calcinación, lo que cuestiona esta interpretación. La zeolita tipo RTH pura sílice se ha sintetizado con el catión iPr3MeP+ variando los tiempos y la temperatura de síntesis. Estos parámetros afectan tanto a la estructura local de los átomos de silicio como a la distribución del flúor en la zeolita. Se ha observado también la transformación de la estructura tipo STF a RTH durante la síntesis. La modificación con fósforo de zeolitas tipo aluminosilicato, que normalmente se realiza por impregnación, estabiliza el aluminio de la red en condiciones hidrotermales, lo que tiene importantes implicaciones en las aplicaciones industriales. En esta tesis, se han incorporado cantidades variables de fósforo en las zeolitas MFI y RTH aluminosilicatos utilizando mezclas de alquilamonios y alquilfosfonios como ADEs. Los resultados indican que el fósforo permanece en las zeolitas después de la calcinación estabilizando el aluminio de red. La caracterización detallada de las muestras ha permitido proponer las especies Al-P formadas, responsables de la estabilización de la red. Además, las zeolitas P-RTH y P-ZSM-5 se han utilizado como catalizadores para la reacción de metanol a olefinas. Por último, se ha estudiado la influencia de diferentes parámetros como la relación Ag/Al, la presencia de cationes alcalinos o la acidez Brønsted en zeolitas Ag-FAU y sus repercusiones en el comportamiento catalítico para la reacción de NH3-SCO. Los catalizadores se han caracterizado exhaustivamente antes, durante y después de la reacción, observándose que las partículas de plata metálica, que son los centros activos, se re-dispersan y oxidan en condiciones de reacción. / [CA] Les zeolites són sòlids cristal·lins i microporosos amb canals i cavitats de dimensions moleculars, que poden presentar una gran varietat d' estructures i composició química, això les fa molt interessants com a catalitzadors en un ampli nombre de reaccions químiques. En la present tesi doctoral, s'ha estudiat en profunditat les propietats estructurals de les zeolites amb estructura RTH i MFI pura sílice i amb sílici i alumini, utilitzant fonamentalment la tècnica de ressonància magnètica nuclear. A més, s'han estudiat catalitzadors basats en Ag-FAU zeolites per a una reacció d'interès mediambiental com es l' Oxidació Catalítica Selectiva d'amoníac (NH3-SCO). En aquesta tesi, les zeolites tipus MFI i RTH s'han sintetitzat amb l'ús de cations tetraalquilamoni i tetraalquilfosfoni i HF com agent mineralitzant. Els resultats obtinguts per a la zeolita MFI pura sílice mostren com l'ADE utilitzat juga un paper important en l'ordre local dels àtoms de silici, la distribució de fluor i la formació de defectes zeolítics. En la síntesi de la zeolita MFI aluminosilicat, s'ha observat que la natura dels ADEs i la relació Si/Al produeix diferències significatives a l'espectre de 27Al de RMN, normalment associades a una localització diferent de l'alumini. Però eixes diferències desapareixen amb la calcinació de les zeolites. La zeolita RTH pura sílice ha sigut sintetitzada amb el catió iPr3MeP+ modificant les condicions de síntesi (temps i temperatura). Els resultats mostren que l'ordre local dels àtoms de l' estructura zeolítica o la distribució de fluor es veu influenciada per aquests paràmetres. També s'ha pogut observar que en determinades condicions de síntesi es produeix la transformació de la estructura tipus STF en RTH en el procés de síntesi. La modificació amb fòsfor de les zeolites que contenen alumini, que normalment es realitza per impregnació, estabilitza l'alumini de l'estructura zeolítica en condicions hidrotermals, la qual cosa té una importància crucial per a les aplicacions industrials d'aquests materials. En aquesta tesi, s'han incorporat quantitats creixents de fòsfor a les zeolites RTH i MFI aluminosilicats utilitzant mescles d'alquilamonis i alquilfosfonis com ADEs. Els resultats indiquen que tot el fòsfor introduït roman a la zeolita després de la calcinació, estabilitzant l'alumini en la zeolita. La caracterització dels materials ha permès proposar les espècies Al-P formades a l'interior de les zeolites, que són les responsables de l'alta estabilitat hidrotermal de l'alumini a l'estructura zeolítica. A més, les zeolites RTH i MFI modificades amb fòsfor han sigut utilitzades com a catalitzadors en la reacció de metanol a olefines (MTO). Per últim, s'ha estudiat la influència de alguns paràmetres com la relació Ag/Al, la presència de cations alcalins o centres àcids de BrØnsted als catalitzadors tipus Ag-FAU i les seues repercussions per a la reacció de NH3-SCO. Els catalitzadors s'han caracteritzat abans, durant i després de la reacció i els resultats mostren que les nanopartícules de plata metàl·lica són el centre actiu de la reacció i que es re-dispersen i oxiden en condicions de reacció. / [EN] Zeolites are microporous crystalline solids containing channels and cavities of molecular dimensions, which can present different structures and chemical composition, making them especially interesting as catalysts in several chemical processes. In this doctoral thesis, we have deeply studied the structural properties of pure silica and aluminosilicate RTH- and MFI-type zeolites mainly using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. Moreover, we have studied the properties of Ag-FAU zeolites as catalysts for the selective catalytic oxidation of ammonia (NH3-SCO), which is a reaction of great interest for the environmental. Here, zeolites RTH and MFI have been synthesized in the presence of tetraalkilammonium and phosphonium cations as OSDAs and in fluoride media. The results obtained for the MFI zeolites show that the OSDAs has a strong influence on the local order of the framework, the fluorine distribution and the formation of siloxy/silanol defects. The results for the aluminosilicate MFI-type (ZSM-5) zeolite show that the shape of the 27Al NMR spectrum changes depending on both the OSDA and the Si/Al ratio, which is usually attributed to a different Al sitting in the zeolite. These differences disappear after the calcination of the zeolites, questioning the classical interpretation. RTH-type zeolite has been synthesized using the iPr3MeP+ cation varying the synthesis conditions (time and temperature). The results show that these parameters affect the local environment of the silicon atoms and the fluorine distribution inside the zeolite. It has been also possible to identify the zeolitic transformation of the STF structure into the RTH-type during the synthesis. The introduction of phosphorus in the aluminosilicate zeolites, usually done by the impregnation procedure, stabilizes the framework aluminium under steam conditions, with important implications in industrial processes. In this doctoral thesis, we have varied the P/Al molar ratios using the dual-template synthesis technique. All phosphorus from the P-based OSDAs remain inside the zeolites after the thermal/hydrothermal treatments. The exhaustive characterization of the materials has allowed us to propose the Al-P species formed inside the zeolites responsible of the aluminium stabilization. Moreover, some phosphorus modified RTH and MFI zeolites were tested in the methanol to olefins (MTO) reaction. Finally, we have studied the influence of different parameters such as the Ag/Al ratio, the alkali cations or the presence of BrØnsted acid sites in the Ag-FAU zeolites and its implications in the NH3-SCO reaction. The Ag-FAU catalysts have been deeply characterized before, during and after the catalytic tests, identifying the Ag0 specie, which is the active centre for this reaction, and that metal particles are re-dispersed and oxidized under reaction conditions. / Martínez Ortigosa, J. (2021). Caracterización estructural de zeolitas por Resonancia Magnetica Nuclear y su aplicación como catalizadores [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/165576

Light yellow, air-sensitive single-crystals of the rhodium(III) orthoperiodato K₈[Rh(IO₆)₂]OH·3H₂O were synthesized starting from Rh₂O₃ and KIO₄. The reaction was carried out in a potassium hydroxide hydroflux with a molar water-base ratio of 1.8 at 200°C. Single-crystal X-ray diffraction revealed a triclinic crystal structure (space group P1). The most striking feature of the structure is the [Rh(IO₆)₂]⁷⁻ anion, a linear sequence of three face-sharing octahedra. It can be interpreted as a rhodium(III) cation coordinated by two orthoperiodato groups. A water molecule and a hydroxide ion form an associate (H₃O₂)⁻ .Together with other water molecules, they connect the [Rh-(IO₆)₂]⁷⁻ anions via hydrogen bridges to form layers. Upon heating, the compound first loses its crystal water, then the iodine is gradually reduced before evaporating during the final decomposition step, which results in K₀.₆₃RhO₂. In K₈[Rh-(IO₆)₂]OH·3H₂O, the unusually short Rh/III-I/VII distance of only 276.38(1) pm should allow direct charge transfer in the [Rh(IO6)₂]⁷⁻ anion. An electron-poor rhodium cation, accessible from the side, could be the active center in the rhodiumcatalyzed oxidation of unsaturated organic molecules by periodate.

Abstract The releases of chlorinated volatile organic compounds (CVOCs) are controlled by strict regulations setting high demands for the abatement systems. Low temperature catalytic oxidation is a viable technology to economically destroy these often refractory emissions. Catalysts applied in the oxidation of CVOCs should be highly active and selective but also maintain a high resistance towards deactivation. In this study, a total of 33 different γ-Al2O3 containing metallic monoliths were studied in dichloromethane (DCM) and 25 of them in perchloroethylene (PCE) oxidation. The active compounds used were Pt, Pd, Rh or V2O5 alone or as mixtures. The catalysts were divided into three different testing sets: industrial, CVOC and research catalysts. ICP-OES, physisorption, chemisorption, XRD, UV-vis DRS, isotopic oxygen exchange, IC, NH3-TPD, H2-TPR and FESEM-EDS were used to characterise the catalysts. Screening of the industrial catalysts revealed that the addition of V2O5 improved the performance of the catalyst. DCM abatement was easily affected by the addition of VOC or water, but the effect on the PCE oxidation was only minor. Based on these screening tests, a set of CVOC catalysts were developed and installed into an industrial incinerator. The comparison between the laboratory and industrial scale studies showed that DCM oxidation in an industrial incinerator could be predicted relatively well. Instead, PCE was always seen to be oxidised far better in an industrial unit indicating that the transient oxidation conditions are beneficial for the PCE oxidation. Before starting the experiments with research catalysts, the water feed was optimised to 1.5 wt.%. Besides enhancing the HCl yields, water improved the DCM and PCE conversions. In the absence of oxygen, i.e. during destructive adsorption, the presence of water was seen to have an even more pronounced effect on the HCl formation and on the catalysts’ stability. In the DCM oxidation, the addition of the active compound on the catalyst support improved the selectivity, while the enhancing effect on the DCM conversion was only small. The high acidity together with the increased reducibility was seen to lead to an active catalyst. Among the research catalysts Pt/Al2O3 was the most active in the DCM oxidation. With PCE the addition of the active compound proved to be very beneficial also for the PCE conversion. Now Pt and Pd supported on Al2O3-CeO2 were the most active. The enhanced reducibility was seen to be the key feature of the catalyst in PCE oxidation. / Tiivistelmä Klooratuille orgaanisille hiilivedyille (CVOC) on asetettu tiukat päästörajoitukset niiden haitallisten vaikutusten takia. Tästä johtuen myös puhdistusmenetelmien tulee olla tehokkaita. Katalyyttinen puhdistus on teknologia, jolla nämä usein vaikeasti käsiteltävät yhdisteet voidaan taloudellisesti tuhota. Käytettävien katalyyttien tulee olla aktiivisia ja selektiivisiä sekä hyvin kestäviä. Tässä työssä tutkittiin yhteensä 33 erilaista γ-Al2O3-pohjaista hapetuskatalyyttiä metyleenikloridin (DCM) käsittelyssä, niistä 25 testattiin myös perkloorietyleenin (PCE) hapetuksessa. Aktiivisina metalleina katalyyteissä käytettiin platinaa, palladiumia, rhodiumia ja vanadiinia yksin tai seoksina. Katalyytit jaettiin kolmeen ryhmään: teolliset-, CVOC- ja tutkimuskatalyytit. Aktiivisuuskokeiden lisäksi katalyyttejä karakterisoitiin ICP-OES-, fysiorptio-, kemisorptio-, XRD-, UV-vis DRS-, isotooppivaihto-, IC-, NH3-TPD-, H2-TPR- ja FESEM-EDS-pintatutkimusmenetelmillä. Koetulokset osoittivat, että vanadiini paransi teollisuuskatalyyttien aktiivisuutta ja selektiivisyyttä. VOC-yhdisteen tai veden lisäys paransi DCM:n hapettumista, mutta PCE:n hapettumiseen niillä ei ollut vaikutusta. Testien perusteella kehitettiin CVOC-katalyytit, jotka asennettiin teolliseen polttolaitokseen. Laboratoriossa ja teollisuudessa tehdyissä testeissä havaittiin, että DCM:n hapettuminen oli laboratoriokokeiden perusteella ennustettavissa. Sen sijaan PCE hapettui teollisuudessa aina paljon paremmin kuin laboratorio-olosuhteissa. Tämä osoittaa, että muuttuvat hapettumisolosuhteet vaikuttivat positiivisesti PCE:n hapettumiseen. Veden määrä syöttövirrassa optimoitiin 1,5 %:iin ennen tutkimuskatalyyttien testausta. Selektiivisyyden lisäksi vesi paransi DCM:n ja PCE:n konversiota. Hapettomissa olosuhteissa, ts. tuhoavien adsorptiokokeiden aikana, vesi paransi reaktion selektiivisyyttä HCl:ksi ja CO2:ksi vielä entisestään. Tämän lisäksi vesi lisäsi katalyytin stabiilisuutta. DCM:n hapetuksessa aktiivisen metallin lisäys paransi selektiivisyyttä, mutta sen sijaan vaikutus DCM:n konversioon oli hyvin pieni. Tulokset osoittivat, että aktiivisella DCM:n hapetuskatalyytillä tulee olla korkea happamuus ja hyvä pelkistyvyys. Pt/Al2O3 oli testatuista tutkimuskatalyyteistä aktiivisin. PCE:n hapetuksessa aktiivisen metallin lisäys paransi selektiivisyyden lisäksi huomattavasti myös konversiota. Katalyytin lisääntyneen pelkistymiskyvyn todettiin olevan keskeisin ominaisuus PCE:n hapettumisessa. Pt/Al2O3-CeO2 ja Pd/Al2O3-CeO2 olivat tutkimuskatalyyteistä aktiivisimpia.

Dans cette étude, la nucléation, la croissance, la morphologie et la réactivité de nanoparticules Au, Cu et AuCu sont examinées sur support rutile TiO2 (110) stoechiométrique, réduit et hydraté. En premier lieu, la nucléation a été modélisée via l’adsorption et la diffusion d’atomes Au et Cu, à l’aide de calculs de type théorie de la fonctionnelle de la densité (DFT), et de diagrammes d’énergie libre en condition réaliste.Les résultats DFT+U ont montré le rôle promoteur des espèces hydroxyles en surface sur la nucléation, en accord avec les mesures expérimentales de microscopie STM. Ensuite, les propriétés thermodynamiques de croissance et de coalescence de clusters Au et Cu (de 1 à 38 atomes) ont été étudiées par une approche systématique qui a déterminé précisément la stabilité relative d’un grand nombre de structures, tout en soulignant la différence de compétition nucléation/croissance entre les deux métaux. Pour des tailles de particules comprises entre 38 et 201 atomes, et des morphologies variées, la stabilité absolue d’agrégats purs Au et Cu et de nanoalliages AuCu a été évaluée à l’aide de calculs d’énergie de surface. Cette approche a révélé l’existence de relations linéaires entre composition chimique et stabilité. Enfin, la réactivité de nanoparticules Au, Cu et AuCu a été examinée suivant deux aspects : le dépôt de clusters de 38 atomes sur support rutile stoechiométrique, et l’adsorption du monoxyde de carbone à l’interface entre le métal et le support.Cette adsorption est une étape clé pour la réaction d’oxydation du CO ; un procédé important en catalyse hétérogène. / In this study, the nucleation, growth, morphology and reactivity of Au, Cu and AuCu nanoparticles have been examined on rutile TiO2 (110) stoiciometric, reduced and hydrated supports. First, the nucleation has been modeled via the adsorption and diffusion of Au and Cu atoms, thanks to density functional theory (DFT) calculations, and free energy diagrams in realistic conditions. DFT+U results have shown the promotor role of surface hydroxyl species on the nucleation, in agreement with STM experimental measurements.Then, the growth and coalescence thermodynamic properties for Au and Cu clusters (from 1 to 38 atoms) have been investigated with a systematic approach which has determinated precisely the relative stability for a large number of structures, and has underlined the difference for the competition between nucleation and growth between the two metals. For particles in the range 38-201 atoms and varied morphologies, the absolute stability of Au and Cu aggregates and AuCu nanoalloys has been evaluated through surface energy calculations. This approach has revealed the existence of linear relations between the chemical composition and the stability.Finally, the reactivity of Au, Cu and AuCu nanoparticles has been examined following two aspects : the deposition of 38 atoms clustered on the stoichiometric rutile support, and the adsorption of carbon monoxide at the interface between the metal and the support. This adsorption is a key step for the CO oxidation reaction ; an important process in heterogeneous catalysis.

This diploma thesis is focused on the design of technological modifications of the existing industrial unit „waste-to-energy“, used for thermal treatment of process waste gases containing VOC and CO while flue gas is produced. The main objective of the existing unit modification is to improve its operating parameters considering economy, ecology and energy utilization. In the first part, the current industrial plant was presented with all necessary process data. Furthermore, all the key equipment used for the waste gases treatment or for the utilization of waste heat was identified. In the main part of the thesis there are performed modifications of the existing unit including the technology of existing heat exchangers intensification, the design of new and more efficient heat exchangers and finally the catalytic oxidation technology implementation for the decomposition of pollutants contained in the waste gas. The result of the thesis is a technical, economic and ecological comparison of the proposed technological modifications with the existing operation.

M. Tech. (Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Applied and Computer Sciences), Vaal University of Technology. / Water polluted by recalcitrant organics, such as methylene blue (MB), can be treated with the Fenton reaction. The Fenton reaction degrades the pollutants through catalytic oxidation. Unsupported iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) were used as catalysts in this study. Iron oxide nanoparticles were synthesised using a precipitation-oxidation method and effects of various preparation parameters on the shape, size and catalytic activity of the iron oxide nanoparticles were studied. Parameters investigated include preparation temperature, type and amount of precipitating agent. The precipitating agents used are sodium hydroxide, tetramethyl ammonium hydroxide (TMAOH), tetraethyl ammonium hydroxide (TEAOH) and ethylamine. The iron oxide nanoparticles were found to be spherical for most of the preparation conditions as determined by TEM. However, irregular flower-like shapes (hexagonal with rod extensions) were obtained when the amounts of the TMAOH and TEAOH bases were more than the stoichiometric amounts. The nature and amount of precipitating agent also influenced the degree of particle agglomeration and growth, with an increase in alkyl chains in the base giving lesser agglomeration. The preparation temperature did not influence the nanoparticles’ size when NaOH was used as a precipitating agent. In contrast, when an amine was used as a precipitation agent, caused a slight increase in the size of the nanoparticles. Different crystal phases like hematite, magnetite, maghemite and goethite-hematite mixture were identified in the X-ray diffractograms. UV-Vis spectroscopy showed that all the catalysts were red-shifted except for B3 sample, which was blue-shifted from the bulk materials. The highest catalytic activities were obtained when NaOH was used as a precipitation agent instead of amine since catalyst has shown to contain the traces amounts of the base used on the surface. The lower catalytic activities for the catalysts prepared using amines may be due to amines adsorbed on the surface and blocking the catalytic active sites. FTIR spectra showed the presence of trace amounts of ammine functional groups on the nanoparticles No correlation was found between the crystallite size and the Fenton catalytic activity of the catalyst. In the same vein, operational parameters such as the amount of H2O2 and temperatures did not show a direct effect on the Fenton catalytic efficiency. Kinetic studies show that the degradation of methylene blue followed the first-order models for all the catalysts prepared with NaOH. Overall, the study shows that different preparation parameters had an effect on the size, shape, phase and the catalytic performance of the synthesised IONPs.

There are three major problems affecting efficiency in the catalytic oxidation of ammonia for obtaining nitric acid in an industrial plant: the limited life of gauzes, the low efficiency of the catalyst after a few months of operation, and finally, the necessity of recovering as much quantity of precious metals as possible. The first point to study in order to control the process and extend the useful life of the catalyst should be the correct characterization of the deactivated system. Therefore, this research is a systematic study about the performance of the catalytic recovering systems in nitric acid plants for all industrial pressures. In addition, it intends to cover the need of updating the knowledge in this field. The results obtained in this study with the support of SEM, EDX, XPS and AAS techniques, allow us to reach the following conclusions: The extremely critical conditions in which the activation pretreatment takes place cause important structural variations in the material surface. Beyond that, significant PtO2 losses and subsequent enrichment in RhO2 occur in a campaign in a high pressure plant, and mean while a continuous surface reconstruction is taking place. In contrast, an enrichment in Rh0 occurs in a lower pressure plant. In all situations, the deactivation is associated to a decrease in the Platinum content, more active than Rhodium. The getter mechanism in the recovering gauzes is directional and consists in the absorption of PtO2 (or Pt0) on the surface of the Palladium-based wires. Next, the PtO2 reduces itself to Pt0 and forms the Pt-Pd alloy. The part of volatile Platinum and Palladium oxides which gest through the recovering pack, as well as the particles of Rh2O3 carried away mechanically, settle in the heat exchangers line and in the Platinum filter of the high pressure plant. The most part of impurities are associated to Fe, Ni, Cr, Cu and Mn,probably forming oxides. Finally, from the comparative analysis made between the diversity of plants studied, we can conclude that their different operating conditions have an extremely important influence in the performance of the catalytic and recovering systems used.

After introducing fundamentals of catalysis with noble metal surfaces especially Pt metal for CO oxidation and subsequent developments on nano-crystalline Pt metals supported on oxide supports, an idea of Pt ion in reducible oxide supports acting as adsorption sites is proposed in chapter 1. Idea of red-ox cycling of an ion in an oxide matrix is presented taking Cu ion in YBa2Cu3O7 as an example. Noble metal ions in reducible oxides such as CeO2 or TiO2 acting as adsorption sites and hence a red-ox catalyst was arrived at from chemical considerations. Among several reducible oxide supports, TiO2 was chosen from crystal structure and electronic structure considerations. A good redox catalyst for auto exhaust and related applications should have high oxygen storage capacity (OSC). Any new material that can work as a redox catalyst should be tested for its OSC. Therefore we designed and fabricated a temperature programmed reduction by hydrogen (H2¬TPR) system to measure OSC. This is presented in chapter 2. We have synthesized a number of oxides by solution combustion method. Structures were determined by powder XRD and Rietveld refinement methods. Fe2O3, Fe2-xPdxO3-δ, Cu1-xMnAl1+xO4, LaCoO3, LaCo1-xPdxO3-δ, CeO2, Ce1¬xPdxO2-δ, TiO2, Ti1-xPdxO2-δ and many other oxide systems were synthesized and their structures were determined. OSC of these systems were determined employing the H2/TPR system. TPR studies were carried out for several redox cycles in each case. Except Pd ion substituted CeO2 and TiO2 other oxide systems decomposed during redox cycling. Pd ion substituted TiO2 gave highest OSC and also it was stable paving way to choose this system for further study. In chapter 3, we have described lattice oxygen of TiO2 activation by the substitution of Pd ion in its lattice. Ti1-xPdxO2-x (x = 0.01 to 0.03) have been synthesized by solution combustion method crystallizing in anatase TiO2 structure. Pd is in +2 oxidation state and Ti is in +4 oxidation state in the catalyst as seen by XPS. Pd is more ionic in TiO2 lattice compared to Pd in PdO. Oxygen storage capacity defined by ‘amount of oxygen that is used reversibly to oxidize CO’ is as high as 5100 μmol/g of Ti0.97Pd0.03O1.97. Oxygen is extracted by CO to CO2 in absence of feed oxygen even at room temperature. Rate of CO oxidation is 2.75 μmol.g-1.s-1 at 60 0C over Ti0.97Pd0.03O1.97 and C2H2 gets oxidized to CO2 and H2O at room temperature. Catalyst is not poisoned on long time operation of the reactor. Such high catalytic activity is due to activated lattice oxygen created by the substitution of Pd ion as seen from first-principles density functional theory (DFT) calculations with 96 atom supercells of Ti32O64, Ti31Pd1O63, Ti30Pd2O62 and Ti29Pd3O61. The compounds crystallize in anatase TiO2 structure with Pd2+ ion in nearly square planar geometry and TiO6 octahedra are distorted by the creation of weakly bound oxygens. Structural analysis of Ti31Pd1O63 which is close to 3% Pd ion substituted TiO2 shows that bond valence of oxygens associated with both Ti and Pd ions in the lattice is 1.87. A low bond valence of oxygen is characteristic of weak oxygen in the lattice compared to oxygens with bond valence 2 and above in the same lattice. Thus, the exact positions of activated oxygens have been identified in the lattice from DFT calculations. Pt has two stable valencies: +2 and +4. Ti ion in TiO2 is in +4 state. Is it possible to substitute Pt exclusively in +2 or +4 state in TiO2? Implications are that Pt in +2 will have oxide ion vacancies and Pt in +4 states will not have oxide ion vacancies. Indeed we could synthesize Pt ion substituted TiO2 with Pt in +2 and +4 states by solution combustion method. In chapter 4, we have shown the positive role of an oxide ion vacancy in the catalytic reaction. Ti0.97Pt2+0.03O1.97 and Ti0.97Pt4+0.03O2 have been synthesized by solution combustion method using alanine and glycine as the fuels respectively. Both are crystallizing in anatase TiO2 structure with 15 nm average crystallite size. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) confirmed Pt ions are only +2 state in Ti0.97Pt0.03O1.97 (alanine) and only in +4 state in Ti0.97Pt0.03O2 (glycine). CO oxidation rate with Ti0.97Pt2+0.03O1.97 is over 10 times higher compared to Ti0.97Pt4+0.03O2. The large shift in 100 % hydrocarbon oxidation to lower temperature was observed by Pt2+ ion substituted TiO2 from that by Pt4+ ion substituted TiO2. After reoxidation of the reduced compound by H2 as well as CO, Pt ions are stabilized in mixed valences, +2 and +4 states. The role of oxide ion vacancy in enhancing catalytic activity has been demonstrated by carrying out the CO oxidation and H2 + O2 recombination reaction in presence and in absence of O2. There is no deactivation of the catalyst by long time CO to CO2 catalytic reaction. We analyzed the activated lattice oxygens upon substitution of Pt2+ ion and Pt4+ ion in TiO2, using first-principles density functional theory (DFT) calculations with supercells Ti31Pt1O63, Ti30Pt2O62, Ti29Pt3O61 for Pt2+ ion substitution in TiO2 and Ti31Pt1O64, Ti30Pt2O62, Ti29Pt3O61 for Pt4+ ion substitution in TiO2. We find that the local structure of Pt2+ ion has a distorted square planar geometry and that of Pt4+ ion has an octahedral geometry similar to Ti4+ ion in pure TiO2. The change in coordination of Pt2+ ion gives rise to weakly bonded oxygens and these oxygens are responsible in high rates of catalytic reaction. Thus, the high catalytic activity results from synergistic roles of oxide ion vacancy and weakly bonded lattice oxygen. In chapter 5, we have shown high rates of H2 + O2 recombination reaction by Ti0.97Pd0.03O1.97 catalyst coated on honeycomb monolith made up of cordierite material. This catalyst was coated on γ¬Al2O3 coated monolith by solution combustion method using dip-dry-burn process. This is a modified conventional method to coat catalysts on honeycombs. Formation of Ti0.97Pd0.03O1.97 catalyst on monolith was confirmed by XRD. Form the XPS spectra of Pd(3d) core level in Ti1-xPdxO2-δ, Pd ion is the formed to be +2 state. Ti0.97Pd0.03O1.97 showed high rates of H2 + O2 recombination compared to 2 at % Pd(metal)/γ-Al2O3, Ce0.98Pd0.02O2-δ, Ce0.98Pt0.02O2-δ, Ce0.73Zr0.25Pd0.02O2-δ and Ti0.98Pd0.02O1.98. Activation energy of H2 + O2 recombination reaction over Ti0.97Pd0.03O1.97 is 7.8 kcal/mole. Rates of reaction over Ti0.97Pd0.03O1.97 are in the range of 10 – 20 μmol/g/s at 60 0C and 4174 h-1 space velocity. Rate is orders of magnitude higher compared to noble metal catalysts. From the industrial point of view, solvent-free hydrogenation of aromatic nitro compounds to amines at nearly 1 bar pressure is an important process. In chapter 6, we showed that Ti0.97Pd0.03O1.97 is a good –nitro to –amine conversion catalyst under solvent-free condition at 1.2 – 1.3 bar H2 pressure. Nitrobenzene, p-nitrotoluene and 2-chloro-4-nitrotoluene are taken for the catalytic reduction reaction. The amine products were analyzed by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (GCMS). Further, confirmation of compounds was done by FTIR, 1H NMR and 13C NMR. In presence of alcohol as solvent, 100% conversion of aromatic nitro compounds to amines took place at higher temperature and it required more times. In n-butanol solvent, 100% conversion of nitrobenzene and p-nitrotoluene occurred within 10 h and 12 h at 105 °C respectively. We have compared solvent-free reduction of p-nitrotoluene over different catalysts at 90 °C. Catalytic activity for reduction of p¬nitrotoluene over Ti0.97Pd0.03O1.97 is much higher than that reaction over 3 atom % Pd on TiO2 and Pd metal. Turnover frequencies (TOF) for nitrobenzene and 2-chloro-4-nitrotoluene conversion are 217 and 20 over Ti0.97Pd0.03O1.97 respectively. With increase of temperature, TOF of aromatic nitro compound reduction is also increased. We have compared the solvent-free reduction of aromatic nitro compound over Ti0.97Pd0.03O1.97 with others in the literature. Upto 3 cycles of reduction reaction, there was no degradation of Ti0.97Pd0.03O1.97 catalyst and stability of catalyst structure was analyzed by XRD, XPS and TEM images. Catalyst is stable under reaction condition and the structure is retained with Pd in +2 state. Finally, we have proposed the mechanism of -nitro group reduction reaction based on the structure of Ti0.97Pd0.03O1.97. Instead of handling nano-crystalline materials we proceeded with coating our catalysts on cordierite honeycombs. In chapter 7, we have shown high catalytic activity towards Heck reaction over Ce0.98Pd0.02O2-δ and Ti0.97Pd0.03O1.97 coated on cordierite monolith. XRD patterns of Ce0.98Pd0.02O2¬δ coated on cordierite monolith were indexed to fluorite structure. Heck reaction of aryl halide with olefins over Ce0.98Pd0.02O2-δ and Ti0.97Pd0.03O1.97 coated on cordierite monolith were carried out at 120 °C. The products were first analyzed by GCMS and for the confirmation of compounds, we have recorded 1H NMR and 13C NMR. Heck reaction was carried out with different solvents and different bases for choosing the good base and a solvent. Hence, we have chosen K2CO3 as base and N,N¬dimethylformamide (DMF) as solvent. We have compared the rates of Heck reactions over these two catalysts and Ti0.97Pd0.03O1.97 catalyst showed much higher catalytic activity than Ce0.98Pd0.02O2-δ. With increase of temperature from 65 °C to 120 °C, the catalytic activity of Ti0.97Pd0.03O1.97 on Heck reaction is also increased. The catalyst was reused for next Heck reaction without significant loss of activity. A mechanism for Heck reaction of aryl halide with alkyl acrylate has been proposed based on the structure of Ti0.97Pd0.03O1.97. In chapter 8, we have provided a critical review of the work presented in the thesis. Critical issues such as noble metal ion doping in TiO2 vs noble metal ion substitution, difficulty of proving the substitution of low % noble metal ion in TiO2, need for better experimental methods to study noble metal ion in oxide matrix have been discussed. Finally, conclusions of the thesis are presented.

The diploma thesis is divided into four main parts. The first part deals with the issue of waste management and its energy utilization in waste incineration. Processed harmful substances produced by incineration as well as emission limits. It deals with the types of catalytic carriers, their description, production and more detailed processing of ceramic foam VUKOPOR. The second part is devoted to technologies utilizing catalytic processes and a more detailed specification of the process. In the third part there is processed the calculation methods for pressure losses for individual types of carriers. Fourth, the most extensive part describes the INTEQII experimental device, its technology and construction, as well as the principle of the practical part, measuring of the pressure losses of carriers. It includes the evaluation of pressure losses in separate categories of carriers, such as the bed, HoneyComb and VUKOPOR ceramic foam. Subsequently, a comparison of the pressure losses of all carriers is made relative to the reference size of 1 m. The impact of bonding of VUKOPOR foam samples on the size of pressure losses is discussed. At the end of this section, the suitability of calculation methods for individual carriers is evaluated, depending on the experimental pressure loss data.

[ES] Se investigó la reacción de metano a metanol (MTM) en zeolitas y zeotipos utilizando clústeres subnanométricos de cobre soportados usando como oxidante O2 y sin la intervención de moléculas de agua en todo momento. Para empezar, se realizó en clústeres aislados de Cu5 y Cu7 para descubrir los principales caminos de reacción y así identificar los principales problemas que pueden ocurrir en cada etapa de la reacción. Se encontró que la reacción transcurre eficientemente a través de un mecanismo Eley-Rideal cuando existen átomos de O bicoordinados estabilizados en las aristas de los clústeres, conduciendo a menores barreras de activación. Sin embargo, la adsorción del grupo metilo y la formación de grupos metoxilo en los clústeres es inevitable, lo que es un importante obstáculo para el proceso. A continuación, se usó el modelo zeolítico SSZ-13 para soportar los clústeres y ver si cuando éstos se encuentran confinados en las cavidades de una zeolita con cantidades variables de Al, este sistema catalítico puede paliar los problemas relacionados con los caminos secundarios y la adsorción de los metilo. Las simulaciones en la disociación de O2 arrojaron un incremento en la carga total positiva de los clústeres Cun conforme al número de átomos de Al en la matriz zeolítica y que una mayor concentración de densidad de carga sobre los átomos de O facilita este paso. Asimismo, los clústeres Cun soportados son capaces de restringir la sobreoxidación en presencia de nuevas moléculas de O2, evitando así la formación de especies Cun-4O, lo cual puede aprovecharse para estabilizar un sistema catalítico bajo condiciones oxidantes a la vez que se mantiene un estado de oxidación metálico. Para la activación de CH4, solo el escenario con 2 átomos de Al fue contemplado. El mecanismo de reacción descubierto es análogo al encontrado en fase gas, con energías de activación de Gibbs menores a 115 kJ·mol-1 siendo similares a las vistas experimentalmente para las zeolitas de Cu intercambiado junto a una gran importancia de los estados mayores de spin, que mejoran la transferencia de H desde el metano al O bicoordinado estabilizado en el clúster. El Cu5 es capaz de convertir metano en metanol mientras evita la generación de especies CH2 y la bicoordinación de los metilo en contraposición al Cu7, el cual ofrece una alternativa peor en casi todos los aspectos. Además, los clústeres de Cu5 abren la posibilidad de producir nuevos productos como el formaldehído o el DME cuando se generan especies metoxilo en el clúster, aportando valor añadido al proceso. Por último, se estudiaron sistemas SAPO-34 y MeAPO-34 con dos átomos metálicos (Zn, Fe, Mg, Ti, Zr y Sn) para descubrir sistemas zeotipo que promuevan mejores propiedades catalíticas y unos mecanismos de reacción dirigidos a la producción de metanol. Considerando los resultados anteriores, solo se exploró la reactividad del Cu5. Estos sistemas se rigen por los mismos principios que el modelo SSZ-13, obteniendo tendencias muy similares en la carga total positiva de los cobres y en la densidad electrónica localizada en los átomos de O, las cuales varían dependiendo del metal seleccionado. No obstante, se obtuvieron mejoras en las barreras energéticas de activación para la disociación de O2 excepto para los casos del Si y el Mg, con valores entre los 34 y los 111 kJ·mol-1. Se encontraron dos candidatos capaces de realizar óptimamente la reacción MTM en comparación con el modelo SSZ-13 con dos átomos de Al en el primer ciclo de reacción con un mecanismo ER: SAPO-34 y TiAPO-34, con perfiles energéticos de Gibbs por debajo de los 80 kJ·mol-1. De hecho, el TiAPO-34 resultó el sistema más prometedor consiguiendo esto a pesar de formar un metilo bicoordinado junto a la menor energía de desorción de metanol encontrada en esta tesis, 21 kJ·mol-1. Además de evitar la producción de especies Cu5-4O al igual que la SSZ-13, el TiAPO-34 mejora las energías relativas de Gibbs con sistemas de Cu5-3O. / [CA] S'investigà la reacció de metà a metanol (MTM) en zeolites i zeotips utilitzant clústers subnanométrics de coure suportats usant com oxidant O2 i sense la intervenció de molècules d'aigua en tot moment. Per començar, es realitzà en clústers aïllats de Cu5 i Cu7 per descobrir els principals camins de reacció i així identificar els principals problemes que poden ocórrer en cada etapa de la reacció. Es trobà que la reacció transcorre eficientment a través d'un mecanisme Eley-Rideal quan existixen àtoms d'O bicoordinats estabilitzats en les aristes dels clústers, conduint a menors barreres d'activació. No obstant, l'absorció del grup metil i la formació de grups metoxil en els clústers és inevitable, cosa que és un important obstacle pel procés. A continuació s'utilitzà el model zeolític SSZ-13 per suportat els clústers i vore si quan estos es troben confinats en les cavitats d'una zeolita amb quantitats variables de Al, este sistema catalític pot paliar els problemes relacionats amb els camins secundaris i l'absorció dels metil. Les simulacions en la dissociació d'O2 llançaren un increment en la càrrega total positiva dels clústers Cun conforme al nombre d'àtoms de Al en la matriu zeolítica i que una major concentració de densitat de càrrega sobre els àtoms de O facilita este pas. Així mateix, els clústers Cun suportats són capaços de restringir la sobreoxidació en presència de noves molècules d'O2, evitant així la formació d'espècies Cun-4O, cosa que pot aprofitar-se per a estabilitzar un sistema catalític baix condicions oxidants a la volta que es manté un estat d'oxidació metàl·lic. Per a l'activació de CH4, sols l'escenari amb 2 àtoms de Al va ser contemplat. El mecanisme de reacció descobert és anàleg al trobat en fase fas, amb energies d'activació de Gibbs menors a 115 kJ·mol-1 sent similars a les vistes experimentalment per a les zeolites de Cu intercanviant junt amb una gran importància dels estats majors de spin, que milloren la transferència de H des del metà al O bicoordinat estabilitzat en el clúster. El Cu5 és capaç de convertir metà en metanol mentre evita la generació d'espècies CH2 i la bicoordinació dels metil en contraposició al Cu7, el qual oferix una alternativa pitjor en quasi tots els aspectes. A més, els clústers de Cu5 obtín la possibilitat de produir nous productes com el formaldehid o el DME quan es generen espècies metoxil en el clúster, aportant valor afegit al procés. Per últim, s'estudiaren sistemes SAPO-34 i MeAPO-34 amb dos àtoms metàl·lics (Zn, Fe, Mg, Ti, Zr i Sn) per descobrir sistemes zeotip que promouen millors propietats catalítics i uns mecanismes de reacció dirigits a la producció de metanol. Considerant els resultats anteriors, sols s'explorà la reactivitat del Cu5. Estos sistemes es rigen pels mateixos principis que el model SSZ-13, obtenint tendències molt similars en la càrrega total positiva dels coures i en la densitat electrònica localitzada en els àtoms d'O, les quals varien depenent del metal seleccionat. No obstant, s'obtingueren millores en les barreres energètiques d'activació per la dissociació d'O2 excepte pels casos del Si i el Mg, amb valors entre els i els 111 kJ·mol-1. Es trobaren dos candidats capaços de realitzar òptimament la reacció MTM en comparació amb el model SSZ-13 amb dos àtoms de Al en el primer cicle de reacció amb un mecanisme ER: SAPO-34 i TiAPO-34, amb perfils energètics de Gibbs per sota dels 80 kJ·mol-1. De fet, el TiAPO-34 resultà el sistema més prometedor aconseguint açò a pesar de formar un metil bicoordinat junt amb la menor energia de desorció de metanol encontrada en esta tesi, 21 kJ·mol-1. A més d'evitar la producció d'espècies Cu5-4O igual que la SSZ-13, el TiAPO-34 millora les energies relatives de Gibbs amb sistemes de Cu5-3O. / [EN] The catalytic behaviour of sub-nanometre copper clusters was investigated in the methane to methanol (MTM) reaction supported in zeolites and zeotypes using O2 as oxidant with no water molecules assisting the process. To begin with, the research was conducted on isolated Cu5 and Cu7 clusters in order to settle the main pathways involved in this complex reaction and to identify the main problems in each step of the reaction. It was found that the reaction can effectively proceed through an Eley-Rideal mechanism when bicoordinated oxygen atoms are stabilised at the edges of the clusters, involving relatively low activation energy barriers. However, the adsorption of the methyl group and the formation of methoxy groups on the clusters are inevitable, which entails a significant obstacle to the process. Next, an SSZ-13 zeolite model was selected as support for the copper clusters to explore whether when the clusters are confined within the cavities of an Al-containing zeolite, this catalytic system can relieve the issues encountered in isolated systems. The O2 dissociation simulations reported an increase in the total positive charge on the Cun clusters with the number of Al atoms in the zeolite framework and a more concentrated electron density over the O atoms that facilitates the dissociation step. Additionally, supported Cun clusters restrain deep oxidation in presence of new O2 molecules evading the formation of Cun-4O species, which can be exploited to stabilise a catalytic system under oxidising conditions while preserving a metallic oxidation state. For CH4 activation, only the scenario with 2 Al atoms was contemplated. The uncovered reaction mechanism is analogous to the one found in gas phase with Gibbs activation barriers less than 115 kJ·mol-1 as those reported experimentally for Cu-exchanged zeolites along with a remarkable importance of higher spin states that enhance the H transfer step from the methane to the anchored O atom on the cluster. Cu5 is able to transform methane into methanol while avoiding the generation of CH2 species and the bi-coordination of methyl groups in contrast to Cu7, which offers a worse alternative in almost every aspect. In addition, Cu5 clusters open the possibility to generate new chemicals like formaldehyde and DME when methoxy species are generated on the cluster, providing added value to the process. Lastly, SAPO-34, and MeAPO-34 models with two metal atoms (Me: Zn, Fe, Mg, Ti, Zr and Sn) were explored to foster better catalytic properties and more optimised mechanistic insights for the production of methanol. Considering the results above, only Cu5 clusters were studied. These zeotype systems follow the same principles as the SSZ-13 in reference to the total positive charge of copper atoms and more localised electron density on O atoms which vary depending on the selected metal. However, improvements on the O2 dissociation activation barriers were found except for the Si and Mg zeotypes, with values ranging from 34 to 111 kJ·mol-1. The CH4 activation in these systems resulted as reported above, an ER reaction path that cannot evade the adsorption of methyl groups; but in which two candidates were found to be more efficient than the SSZ-13 with two Al atoms in terms of a lower Gibbs energy profile for the first cycle: SAPO-34 and TiAPO-34 zeotypes, being both of them below 80 kJ·mol-1. In fact, the TiAPO-34 turned out to be the most promising system since it achieves these results despite the formation of a bicoordinated methyl group along with the lowest methanol desorption energy reported in this dissertation, 21 kJ·mol-1. To further explore the TiAPO-34 system, additional oxidation simulations were carried out, confirming the catalytic system avoids the production of Cu5-4O species just as reported in the zeolite model. The resultant Cu5-3O is alike to the one reported in SSZ-13, improving the Gibbs relative energies. / Gallego Rodríguez, M. (2024). Selective Oxidation of Methane into Methanol using Sub-nanometre Copper Clusters: A Computational Study [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/207338