The goal of this thesis is the development of scalable, low cost synthesis of metal oxide nanostructures based electrodes and to correlate the chemical modifications with their energy conversion performance. Methods in energy conversion in this thesis have focused on two aspects; a potentiometric chemical sensor was used to determine the analytical concentration of some components of the analyte solution such as dopamine, glucose and glutamate molecules. The second aspect is to fabricate a photo-electrochemical (PEC) cell. The biocompatibility, excellent electro-catalytic activities and fast electron transfer kinetics accompanied with a high surface area to volume ratio; are properties of some metal oxide nanostructures that of a potential for their use in energy conversion. Furthermore, metal oxide nanostructures based electrode can effectively be improved by the physical or a chemical modification of electrode surface. Among these metal oxide nanostructures are cobalt oxide (Co3O4), zinc oxide (ZnO), and bismuth-zincvanadate (BiZn2VO6) have all been studied in this thesis. Metal oxide nanostructures based electrodes are fabricated on gold-coated glass substrate by low temperature (< 100 0C) wet chemicalapproach. X-ray diffraction, x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy were used to characterize the electrodes while ultraviolet-visible absorption and photoluminescence were used to investigate the optical properties of the nanostructures. The resultant modified electrodes were tested for their performance as chemical sensors and for their efficiency in PEC activities. Efficient chemically modified electrodes were demonstrated through doping with organic additives like anionic, nonionic or cationic surfactants. The organic additives are showing a crucial role in the growth process of metal oxide nanocrystals and hence can beused to control the morphology. These organic additives act also as impurities that would significantly change the conductivity of the electrodes. However, no organic compounds dependence was observed to modify the crystallographic structure. The findings in this thesis indicate the importance of the use of controlled nanostructures morphology for developing efficient functional materials.

<p>A new NO_x sensor for high-temperature applications has been developed and thouroghly characterised. The sensor layers are a mixed oxide of CoO, MgO and MgO₂ deposited by thermal evaporation with a porous platinum gate on top, deposited by thermal evaporation or sputtering. The sensitivity and selectivity of the sensor is promising and is shown to depend upon the ratio between Co and Mg in the film and a number of competing mechanisms are shown to take place on the sensor surface. Response and recovery of the device is still slow and there are some drift, which are suggested to be due to a restructuring sensor surface during operation that was found by SEM-studies. Finally,the oxide surface has been characterized by XPS and a novel process for deposition of the sensor layers by lift-off technique has been developed.</p>

A new NOx sensor for high-temperature applications has been developed and thouroghly characterised. The sensor layers are a mixed oxide of CoO, MgO and MgO2 deposited by thermal evaporation with a porous platinum gate on top, deposited by thermal evaporation or sputtering. The sensitivity and selectivity of the sensor is promising and is shown to depend upon the ratio between Co and Mg in the film and a number of competing mechanisms are shown to take place on the sensor surface. Response and recovery of the device is still slow and there are some drift, which are suggested to be due to a restructuring sensor surface during operation that was found by SEM-studies. Finally,the oxide surface has been characterized by XPS and a novel process for deposition of the sensor layers by lift-off technique has been developed.

Recent research focuses on expanding the use of RF/Microwave circuits and systems to include multi-disciplinary applications. One example is the detection of the dielectric properties of chemicals and bio-chemicals at microwave frequencies, which is useful for pharmaceutical applications, food and drug safety, medical diagnosis and material characterization. Dielectric spectroscopy is also quite relevant to detect the frequency dispersive characteristics of materials over a wide frequency range for more accurate detection. In this dissertation, on-chip and on-board solutions for microwave chemical sensing are proposed. An example of an on-chip dielectric detection technique for chemical sensing is presented. An on-chip sensing capacitor, whose capacitance changes when exposed to material under test (MUT), is a part of an LC voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO). The VCO is embedded inside a frequency synthesizer to convert the change in the free runing frequency frequency of the VCO into a change of its input voltage. The system is implemented using 90 nm CMOS technology and the permittivities of MUTs are evaluated using a unique detection procedure in the 7-9 GHz frequency range with an accuracy of 3.7% in an area of 2.5 × 2.5 mm^2 with a power consumption of 16.5 mW. The system is also used for binary mixture detection with a fractional volume accuracy of 1-2%. An on-board miniaturized dielectric spectroscopy system for permittivity detec- tion is also presented. The sensor is based on the detection of the phase difference be- tween the input and output signals of cascaded broadband True-Time-Delay (TTD) cells. The sensing capacitor exposed to MUTs is a part of the TTD cell. The change of the permittivity results in a change of the phase of the microwave signal passing through the TTD cell. The system is fabricated on Rogers Duroid substrates with a total area of 8 × 7.2 cm2. The permittivities of MUTs are detected in the 1-8 GHz frequency range with a detection accuracy of 2%. Also, the sensor is used to extract the fractional volumes of mixtures with accuracy down to 1%. Additionally, multi-band and multi-standard communication systems motivate the trend to develop broadband front-ends covering all the standards for low cost and reduced chip area. Broadband amplifiers are key building blocks in wideband front-ends. A broadband resistive feedback low-noise amplifier (LNA) is presented using a composite cross-coupled CMOS pair for a higher gain and reduced noise figure. The LNA is implemented using 90 nm CMOS technology consuming 18 mW in an area of 0.06 mm2. The LNA shows a gain of 21 dB in the 2-2300 MHz frequency range, a minimum noise figure of 1.4 dB with an IIP3 of -1.5 dBm. Also, a four-stage distributed amplifier is presented providing bandwidth extension with 1-dB flat gain response up to 16 GHz. The flat extended bandwidth is provided using coupled inductors in the gate line with series peaking inductors in the cascode gain stages. The amplifier is fabricated using 180 nm CMOS technology in an area of 1.19 mm2 achieving a power gain of 10 dB, return losses better than 16 dB, noise figure of 3.6-4.9 dB and IIP3 of 0 dBm with 21 mW power consumption. All the implemented circuits and systems in this dissertation are validated, demonstrated and published in several IEEE Journals and Conferences.

Cavity enhanced spectroscopies (CES) are currently amongst the most sensitive spectroscopic techniques available for probing gas-phase samples, however their application to the liquid-phase has been more limited. Sensitive analysis of submicrolitre liquid samples is highly desirable, as miniaturisation allows for the reaction and analysis of scarce or expensive reagents, produces less waste, and can increase the speed of separations and reactions, whilst having a small footprint and high throughput. Absorption spectroscopy is a particularly desirable technique due to its universal, label-free nature, however its application to small volume liquid samples is hampered by the associated short absorption pathlengths, which limit sensitivity. CES improve sensitivity by trapping light within a confined region, increasing the effective pathlength through the sample. Three distinct types of optical cavity were constructed and evaluated for the purposes of making optical absorption measurements on liquid samples. The first incorporated a high optical quality flow cell into a "macrocavity" formed from two dielectric mirrors separated by 51.3 cm. Cavity losses were minimised by positioning the flow cell at Brewster's angle to the optical axis, and the setup was used to perform a single-wavelength cavity ringdown spectroscopy experiment to detect and quantify nitrite within aqueous samples. The detection limit was determined to be 8.83 nM nitrite in an illuminated volume of only 74.6 nL. Scattering and reflective losses from the flow cell surfaces were found to be the largest barrier to increased sensitivity, leading us to focus on the integration of cavity mirrors within a microfluidic flow system in the work that followed. In the second set of experiments, cavity enhanced absorption spectroscopy (CEAS) measurements were performed on Thymol Blue using custom-made microfluidic chips with integrated cavity mirrors. Unfortunately, due to the plane-parallel configuration of the mirrors and the corresponding difficulty in sustaining stable cavity modes, the results were underwhelming, with a maximum cavity enhancement factor (CEF) of only 2.68. At this point, attention was focussed toward a more well-defined cavity geometry: open-access plano-concave microcavities. The microcavities consist of an array of micron-scale concave mirrors opposed by a planar mirror, with a pathlength that is tunable to sub-nanometer precision using piezoelectric actuators. In contrast to the other experimental setups described, themicrocavities allow for optical measurements to be performed in which we monitor the change of wavelength and/or amplitude of a single well-defined cavity mode in response to a liquid sample introduced between the mirrors. In the first microcavity experiment, we used 10 &mu;m diameter mirrors with cavity lengths from 2.238 &mu;m to 10.318 &mu;m to demonstrate refractive index sensing in glucose solutions with a limit of detection of 3.5 x 10^-4 RIU. The total volume of detection in our setup was 54 fL. Thus, at the limit of detection, the setup can detect the change of refractive index that results from the introduction of 900 zeptomoles (500,000 molecules) of glucose into the device. The microcavity sensor was then adapted to enable broadband absorption measurements of methylene blue via CEAS. By recording data simultaneously from multiple cavities of differing lengths, absorption data is obtained at a number of wavelengths. Using 10 &mu;m diameter mirrors with cavity pathlengths from 476 nm to 728 nm, a limit of detection, expressed as minimum detectable absorption per unit pathlength, of 1.71 cm^-1 was achieved within a volume of 580 attolitres, corresponding to less than 2000 molecules within the mode volume of the cavity. Finally, a new prototype was developed with improved cavity finesse, a much more intense and stable light source, and improved flow design. Using a single plano-concave microcavity within the array with a cavity pathlength of 839.7 nm, and 4 &mu;m radius of curvature mirror, absorption measurements were performed on Methylene Blue. Analysis of this data indicated a CEF of around 9270, and a limit of detection based on the measured signal-to-noise ratio of 0.0146 cm^-1. This corresponds to a minimum detectable concentration of 104 nM Methylene Blue, which given the mode volume of 219 aL, suggests a theoretical minimum detectable number of molecules of 14.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / The need for clean, non-toxic drinking water supplies, free of pollutants and metal contamination is vital in impoverished areas and the developing world alike. With this in mind, the development of accurate, inexpensive, portable and simple devices for remote sensing applications is therefore pivotal for early detection and the prevention of illnesses. Over the last two decades, adsorptive stripping voltammetry (AdSV) has emerged as a superior detection method over common analytical techniques due to its low-cost instrumentation, unskilled labour and ability to detect a wide range of analytes. / 2020-08-31

De nombreux capteurs d'ammoniac existent, mais la prise en compte de l'effet de l'humidité sur la mesure capteur est rarement assurée, y compris chez les fabricants. L'objectif de cette thèse est de proposer un transducteur conductimétrique capable de mesurer le taux d'ammoniac de façon sélective, avec une précision suffisante, pour une application au contrôle de la qualité de l'air dans un environnement à taux d'humidité variable. Le moyen employé pour atteindre cet objectif est l'utilisation de résistors à base de phtalocyanines de cobalt, sous forme de films minces, comme matériaux semi-conducteurs. L'étude porte sur la mise en forme de ces films minces réalisés par évaporation sous vide, évaporation de solvant et électrodéposition. Des bancs de mesures automatisés ont été mis en place pour effectuer les mesures électriques sous argon et pour étudierles réponses à l'ammoniac sec ou humide en appliquant des cycles exposition / repos. A partir de ces cycles de 1 min et 4 min, des réponses relatives sont calculées pour obtenir des valeurs proportionnelles aux concentrations d'ammoniac. Les effets de l'humidité seule et de l'ozone ont également été étudiés. Des tests sur la sensibilité croisée ammoniac / humidité ont été réalisés sur quatre résistors différents, dans des gammes de concentration allant de 25 à 90 ppm et dans des gammes d'humidité allant de 0 à 80% d'HR, à température ambiante. Deux d'entre eux, un résistor de phtalocyanine de cobalt (PcCo) et un résistor hybride de phtalocyanine de cobalt sulfonée /polypyrrole (s-PcCo/PPy), ont donné des résultats particulièrement intéressants.PcCo permet de discriminer des concentrations de 25, 45 et 90 ppm d'ammoniac dans une gammede 20 à 60% d'HR, avec une réponse relative de 40% à 45 ppm. De plus, mêmes si les RRs à 80%d'HR divergent légèrement, la discrimination est toujours possible entre les différentesconcentrations de NH3.s-PcCo / PPy est moins sensible à l'ammoniac, mais son étude a permis de démontrer que l'ajout dephtalocyanine dans une matrice polypyrrole augmente la sensibilité de ce matériau. Il donne uneréponse relative de 3,3% à 45 ppm. Cependant, la gamme d'humidité couverte est plus large, allant de 20 à 80% d'HR.Cette étude a donc permis de comparer des matériaux et d'estimer leur potentiel pour des applications au contrôle de la qualité de l'air avec différents taux d'humidité / Many ammonia sensors are available but the consideration of the humidity effect is scarcely insured even by manufacturers. The aim of this thesis is to propose a conductimetric transducer capable tomeasure ammonia selectively, with enough accuracy for air quality control, in a variable humidity environment. To reach this goal, we used thin film resistors made of cobalt phthalocyanines as semiconductor. This study deals with thin films processing made by vacuum evaporation, solventcast and electrodeposition. Automated workbenches were developed to perform electrical measurements under argon and to study the response of sensors to dry or humid ammonia by meansof 1 min / 4 min-long exposure / recovery cycles. From those cycles, relative responses are calculated to obtain values proportional to ammonia concentrations. The humidity and ozone effects are also studied independently as well. Ammonia / humidity cross sensitivity tests are made with four different resistors exposed to ammonia concentration in a 25-90 ppm range and in a 0-80%relative humidity range, under ambient temperature. Two of them, a cobalt phthalocyanine (CoPc)resistor and a hybrid resistor made of sulfonated cobalt phthalocyanine / polypyrrole (s-CoPc/PPy)gave interesting results.CoPc allows to discriminate 25, 45 and 90 ppm ammonia concentrations under 20-60% RH range,with a relative response of 40% at 45 ppm. Moreover, even if the RRs at 80% RH shift slightly, it isstill possible to discriminate the different concentrations.s-CoPc / PPy is less sensitive to ammonia but its study allowed to show that adding phthalocyaninein a PPy matrix enhances the sensitivity of this material and gives a RR of 3.3% at 45 ppm.However, the covered humidity range is larger, from 20 to 80% RH. Thus, this study allows to compare molecular materials and estimate their potential for air quality control applications with different humidity levels

The objective of this research is to apply micromachined silicon-based resonant gravimetric sensors to the detection of gas-phase volatile organic compounds (VOCs). This is done in two primary tasks: 1) the optimization and application of silicon disk resonators to the detection of gas-phase VOCs, and 2) the development and application of a novel gravimetric-capacitive multisensor platform for the detection of gas-phase VOCs. In the rst task, the design and fabrication of a silicon-based disk resonator structure utilizing an in-plane resonance mode is undertaken. The resonance characteristics of the disk resonator are characterized and optimized. The optimized characteristics include the resonator Q-factor as a function of geometric parameters, and the dynamic displacement of the in-plane resonance mode. The Q-factors of the disk resonators range from 2600 to 4360 at atmosphere for disk silicon thicknesses from 7 µm to 18 µm, respectively. The resonance frequency of the in-plane resonance mode ranges from 260 kHz up to 750 kHz. The disk resonators are applied to the sensing of gas-phase VOCs using (poly)isobutylene as a sensitive layer. Limits of detection for benzene, toluene and m-xylene vapors of 5.3 ppm, 1.2 ppm, and 0.6 ppm are respectively obtained. Finally, models for the limits of detection and chemical sensitivity of the resonator structures are developed for the case of the polymer layers used. In the second task, a silicon-based resonator is combined with a capacitive structure to produce a multisensor structure for the sensing of gas-phase VOCs. Fabrication of the multisensor structure is undertaken, and the sensor is theoretically modeled. The baseline capacitance of the capacitor component of the multisensor is estimated to be 170 fF. Finally, initial VOC detection results for the capacitive aspect of the sensor are obtained.

La present tesis contribueix a donar una nova visió dins de l'àrea de modificació de superfícies, la qual implica la nanoestructuració de substrats fent servir la tècnica d'auto-assemblatge per a dipositar sobre aquests un polímer conductor mitjançant deposició química en fase vapor per plasma. L'ús de polímers conductors ha despertat un creixent interès en el desenvolupament de sensors químics per a l'anàlisi de gasos en aplicacions d'enginyeria electrònica. La contínua reducció de mida en aquests dispositius ha encoratjat la proposta d'un mètode alternatiu per aconseguir estructures de rang nanomètric, així com per solucionar problemes com la falta d'adherència entre substrat i polímer, disminuir els límits de detecció o escurçar els temps de resposta.En aquesta investigació s'ha treballat amb monocapes amb un grup pirrol terminal per tal de potenciar la nucleació i creixement de pel·lícules de polipirrol polimeritzades mitjançant plasma. A més, les monocapes han aportat millores en l'adhesió interfacial de l'estructura polímer/metall. Així mateix, s'han dopat les pel·lícules primes de polipirrol per tal d'obtenir la seva forma conductora, les propietats elèctriques de les quals permeten utilitzar-ho com a sensor químic. La seva exposició a un vapor comporta canvis en la conductivitat del polímer, a través dels quals es pot identificar i quantificar l'esmentat analit.L'auto-assemblatge i la deposició del polímer són els factors claus en aquesta investigació. Per tant, s'han utilitzat diverses tècniques de caracterització de superfícies com XPS, TOF-SIMS, FT-IR o SEM, per estudiar les seves propietats físiques i químiques. Igualment, l'ús de l'AFM ha estat de gran ajut per investigar el procés de nucleació i la topografia de les pel·lícules. A més, la tècnica de les quatre puntes ha proporcionat una excel·lent eina per realitzar mesures de conductivitat a les pel·lícules primes. Finalment, les pel·lícules polimeritzades per plasma han mostrat una gran sensibilitat al diòxid de carboni, demostrant la seva capacitat per ser utilitzades com a sensors químics. / La presente tesis contribuye a dar una nueva visión dentro del área de modificación de superficies, la cual implica la nanoestructuración de sustratos utilizando la técnica de auto-ensamblado para depositar sobre éstos un polímero conductor mediante deposición química en fase vapor por plasma. El uso de polímeros conductores ha despertado un creciente interés en el desarrollo de sensores químicos para el análisis de gases en aplicaciones de ingeniería electrónica. La continua reducción de tamaño en estos dispositivos ha alentado la propuesta de un método alternativo para conseguir estructuras de rango nanométrico, así como para solucionar problemas tales como la falta de adherencia entre sustrato y polímero, disminuir los límites de detección o acortar los tiempos de respuesta.En esta investigación se ha trabajado con monocapas con un grupo pirrol terminal para potenciar la nucleación y crecimiento de películas de polipirrol polimerizadas mediante plasma. Además, las monocapas han aportado mejoras en la adhesión interfacial de la estructura polímero/metal. Asimismo, se han dopado las películas delgadas de polipirrol para obtener su forma conductora, cuyas propiedades eléctricas permiten utilizarlo como sensor químico. Su exposición a un vapor conlleva cambios en la conductividad del polímero, a través de los cuales se puede identificar y cuantificar dicho analito.El auto-ensamblaje y la deposición del polímero son los factores claves en esta investigación. Por lo tanto, se han utilizado diversas técnicas de caracterización de superficies, como XPS, TOF-SIMS, FT-IR o SEM, para estudiar sus propiedades físicas y químicas. Igualmente, el uso del AFM ha sido de gran valor para investigar el proceso de nucleación y la topografía de las películas. Además, la técnica de las cuatro puntas ha proporcionado una excelente herramienta para realizar medidas de conductividad en películas delgadas. Finalmente, las películas polimerizadas por plasma han mostrado una gran sensibilidad al dióxido de carbono, con lo cual han demostrado su capacidad para ser utilizados como sensores químicos. / This thesis contributes a new insight into surface modification involving substrates nanostructuration by self-assembly to deposit on them a conducting polymer through plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition. The use of conducting polymers has gained growing interest in the development of chemical sensor arrays for gas analysis in electronic engineering applications. The size reduction in these devices has encouraged the proposal of an alternative method to achieve structures at nanometer range, as well as overcoming problems like lack of adhesion between substrate and polymer, lower limits of detection or shorten response times.The investigation has dealt with the use of pyrrole terminated monolayers to enhance the nucleation and growth of polypyrrole plasma polymerized films. In addition, monolayers provide an improvement in the interfacial adhesion of the polymer/metal structure. Furthermore, polymeric thin films have been doped to obtain the conducting form of polypyrrole, of which electric properties enable to use it as a chemical sensor. Exposure to vapors leads to changes in polymer conductivity, by which analytes can be identified and quantified.Self-assembly and polymer deposition are key factors in this research, as a consequence surface characterization techniques, such as XPS, TOF-SIMS, FT-IR or SEM, have been employed to study their physical and chemical characteristics. Especially interesting have been the use of AFM to investigate the nucleation process and the film topography. Moreover, the four-point probe technique has provided an excellent tool to perform conductivity measurements on thin films. Besides, plasma polymerized films have shown a high sensitivity to carbon dioxide in order to demonstrate their aptitudes to be utilized as a chemical sensor.

Les nanofils de semiconducteurs, d’oxides métalliques ou encore les nanotubes de carbone suscitent beaucoup d’intérêt pour des applications en nanoélectronique, mais également pour le développement de nanocapteurs chimiques ou biologiques. Cet intérêt pour les capteurs est principalement motivé par les propriétés liées aux faibles dimensions radiales et aux forts ratios surface/volume de ces nano-objets qui les rendent extrêmement sensibles aux effets de surface, et par conséquent à leur environnement. Les variations de charges de surface des matériaux en fonction du milieu peuvent également être utilisées comme une voie pour l’auto-organisation de nano-objets. Ce travail s’inscrit dans cette perspective. La voie chimique explorée pour la localisation est compatible avec une intégration de nano-objets a posteriori sur une technologie CMOS silicium. Plus précisément, notre approche « Bottom Up » repose sur les variations de la charge de surface du SiO2 et du Si3N4 en fonction du pH de la solution. Après une revue de littérature sur les points de charge nulle (PZC) des différents isolants selon leurs techniques d’élaboration, nous avons étudié expérimentalement les propriétés de couches de SiO2 thermique et de Si3N4 (LPCVD). Les PZC de ces différents isolants ont été déterminés par des mesures d’impédance électrochimique réalisées sur des structures EIS et couplées avec des mesures d’angle de contact en fonction du pH. Une étude systématique en fonction du pH (1.5 à 4.5) a été réalisée et un protocole expérimental a pu être mis en place pour démontrer la localisation préférentiellement les nanofils de silicium sur Si3N4. Nous avons pu démontrer qu’une localisation quasi parfaite était possible pour un pH compris entre 3 et 3,25 conformément au modèle électrostatique proposé. Le procédé développé présente l’avantage d’être simple, reproductible et peu coûteux. Il utilise une chimie très classique à température ambiante pour localiser des nano-objets silicium sans présenter de risque pour les dispositifs CMOS des niveaux inférieurs. / Semiconductor and metal oxides nanowires as well as carbon nanotubes are attractive for Nano electronic applications but also for chemical or biological sensors. This interest is related to the properties of 1D nanostructures with very small diameters and with high surface / volume ratios. The main property of such nanostructures is the high electrostatic sensitivity to their environment. The related surface charge variations as function of the medium may also be used as a way for the nanostructure self-organization. This work has been developed with this perspective. The investigated chemical approach is compatible with a post-integration of nano-objects on silicon CMOS technologies. More precisely, our “Bottom Up” method uses the different surface charges on SiO2 and Si3N4 as a function of the solution pH. After a literature review focused on the Point of Zero Charge (PZC) for insulating materials depending on the fabrication techniques, we have studied experimentally thermal SiO2 and LPCVD Si3N4 layers grown or deposited on silicon. The PZC of our layers have been determined using electrochemical impedance measurements in a EIS configuration. These impedance measurements have been cross correlated with contact angle measurements as function of the solution’s pH. A systematic study as function of pH in the 1.5 – 4.5 range as been carried out and an experimental protocol has been found in order to demonstrate the preferential localization of silicon nanowires on Si3N4. From this study, it is found that a quasi-perfect localization is possible for a pH between 3 and 3.25 as expected from the proposed electrostatic model. Finally, the developed process is low-cost, simple and reproducible which presents important advantages. It uses a very classical chemistry at ambient temperature and allows the localization of silicon nano-objects without any risk for the CMOS devices of the front-end level.