Thesis (MA)--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The decision by teachers to use a specific language for teaching in a bilingual context is influenced by a number of factors. These may include learners’ linguistic background, parental preferences on the use of language for teaching and learning, policy stipulations on language use, as well as learners’ cognitive level and their ability to comprehend lessons given in a specific language. Although policy stipulations and parental preference may emphasise the use of one particular language for teaching and learning, research shows that the classroom context and the dilemma teachers face in terms of language comprehension often play a role in the use of more than one language. Teachers often switch codes in a bilingual classroom for different reasons: clarifying subject matter, concept elaboration, encouraging leaners to participate, supporting exploratory talk, ensuring comprehension as well as switching codes as a classroom management strategy. This thesis investigates the frequency and the function of teachers’ code switching (CS) in a bilingual classroom context. The study was conducted in Limpopo Province, South Africa, in the Vhembe District Municipality. Two bilingual primary schools under Sibasa Circuit were chosen for study. A series of lessons were observed in the two schools and teachers’ interactions with learners in the classroom were recorded and then analysed qualitatively, guided by Myers- Scotton’s (1993) Markedness Model which is used to provide an account for different types of CS. This model is used to account for the motivations for every code choice in any discourse. The results of the study show that CS is a common feature in the two schools. The policy stipulations and parents’ preference do not limit teachers’ use of CS in such bilingual primary school classrooms. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: ’n Onderwyser se besluit om ’n spesifieke taal vir onderrig in ’n tweetalige konteks te gebruik word deur ’n reeks faktore beïnvloed. Dit sluit die leerders se taalagtergrond, ouers se taalvoorkeur vir onderrig en leer, amptelike skoolbeleid in verband met taalgebruik, sowel as die leerders se kognitiewe vlak en hul vermoë om klasse te verstaan wat in ’n spesifieke taal aangebied word, in. Hoewel skoolbeleid en ouers se taalvoorkeur die gebruik van een spesifieke taal vir onderrig en leer beklemtoon, toon navorsing dat die konteks van die klaskamer en die dilemma wat onderwysers in die gesig staar in terme van taalbegrip, ’n rol speel in die gebruik van meer as een taal. Onderwysers gebruik dikwels twee tale in ’n tweetalige klaskamer, om verskeie redes: verduideliking van lesmateriaal, uitbreiding van konsepte, aanmoediging van die leerders om deel te neem, ondersteuning van ondersoekende gesprekke, versekering van begrip sowel as kodewisseling as ’n strategie vir die bestuur van die klaskamer. Hierdie tesis ondersoek die frekwensie en die funksie van onderwysers se kodewisseling in die konteks van ’n tweetalige klaskamer. Die studie is in die Vhembe Distriksmunisipaliteit van die Limpopo Provinsie, Suid- Afrika, uitgevoer. Twee tweetalige laerskole wat deel uitmaak van die Sibasa-streek is gekies vir die studie. ’n Reeks klasse is waargeneem in die twee skole en die onderwysers se interaksies met die leerders in die klaskamer is opgeneem en daarna kwalitatief ontleed , gegrond op Myers- Scotton (1993) se Gemarkeerdheidsmodel (“Markedness Model”) wat gebruik word om ’n verklaring te gee vir die verskillende tipes kodewisseling. Hierdie model is gebruik om ’n verantwoording te bied van die redes vir elke kodekeuse in enige diskoers. Die resultate van die studie toon dat kodewisseling ’n algemene verskynsel in die twee skole is. Die skoolbeleid en ouers se taalvoorkeur beperk nie die onderwysers se gebruik van kodewisseling in sulke tweetalige laerskoolklaskamers nie. Onderwysers gebruik om verskeie redes kodewisseling, insluitend uitbreiding, verduideliking, beklemtoning, en teregwysing as ’n dissiplinêre strategie.

The aim of this thesis is to investigate the patterns of language alternation in the Polish community in Lithuania, which can be described as an indigenous ethnic group that has been living on the territory of modern-day Lithuania since the fourteenth century (Potašenko 2007). Following two language ideologies, Russification during Soviet times and Lithuanisation post-independence, the Lithuanian Poles developed complex linguistic repertoires, consisting of the regional and standard variety of Polish, Russian and Lithuanian. One of the most significant consequences of the prolonged language contact has been the emergence of frequent and regular language alternation between the regional variety of Polish and Russian, which constitutes the focal point of the present study. As the existing research suggests, the linguistic phenomena arising as a result of language contact can be situated along a continuum, which starts with code-switching, then gradually moves towards code-mixing and finally evolves into a conventionalised fused lect (Auer 1999). 'Classic' code-switching is characterised by the locally meaningful juxtaposition of the two languages, code-mixing can be described as a type of interaction where the switched mode of speaking becomes the norm while a fused lect is an even further development of bilingual speech, which presupposes loss of variation and an increase of linguistic structure. The data for the present study come from a corpus of spontaneous conversations involving members of the Polish community. The recordings were collected in the city of Vilnius and feature 25 respondents in their twenties. The data analysis reveals that all three types of language alternation feature in the present corpus; however, code-mixing is clearly the preferred type. It immediately manifests itself in the frequent insertion of Russian single switches and larger constituents into the Polish base. As a result of its wide spread and frequency, language alternation has lost its immediate local meaning and the pattern of frequent Polish-Russian mixing has become the accepted mode of speaking within the Polish speech community.

Neste trabalho, estuda-se a alternância de código chinês-português por imigrantes chineses que moram no Rio Grande do Sul. Analisam-se vinte e duas vinhetas, coletadas durante três meses, na perspectiva da sociolingüística interacional (GOFFMAN, 2002; BLOM; GUMPERZ, 2002; TANNEN; WALLAT, 2002; AUER, 1955, 1999). As vinhetas foram agrupadas em quatro categorias: tecnologia de informação, cultura, papel emocional e papel funcional. Um quinto conjunto de vinhetas foi analisado no que se refere à interferência do chinês no português, quando da alternância de código. A análise revelou que a alternância de código, circunscrita a temas e a necessidades expressivas ligadas à tecnologia, às diferenças culturais, à expressão de emoções, aos usos funcionais, é pista para o enquadre de eventos interacionais pela conversa no cenário brasileiro, mas ainda numa perspectiva oriental. Isso se reflete na própria estrutura das seqüências alternadas do português, em que traços gramaticais do chinês se fazem presentes de forma marcante. / Submitted by Marcelo Teixeira (mvteixeira@ucs.br) on 2014-05-19T17:18:51Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertacao Wu Xiao Mei.pdf: 580394 bytes, checksum: 1edd005d606cf044d01baf39b301f3c7 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2014-05-19T17:18:51Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertacao Wu Xiao Mei.pdf: 580394 bytes, checksum: 1edd005d606cf044d01baf39b301f3c7 (MD5) / This paper studies Chinese-Portuguese code-switching by Chinese immigrants in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. Twenty-two discourse excerpts, collected during three months, were analyzed in the interactional sociolinguistics approach (GOFFMAN, 2002; BLOM; GUMPERZ, 2002; TANNEN; WALLAT, 2002; AUER, 1955, 1999). The excerpts were grouped in four categories: information technology, culture, emotional role and functional role. A fifth set of excerpts was analyzed in what refers to the interference of Chinese on Portuguese in code-switching. The analysis showed that code-switching, circumscribed to topics and expressive needs related to technology, cultural differences, expression of emotions, functional uses, is a cue to the framing of interactional events in the Brazilian scene, but still in an eastern perspective. This state of affairs is reflected in the structure of alternated sequences in Portuguese, in which Chinese structural features are strong.

The aim of this study was to investigate how code-switching operates and what impact it has on the interaction in the EFL classroom. The study was conducted at a Swedish secondary school by means of observations, interviews, and a questionnaire. The participants of the study were 79 students and two teachers. Both teachers and students were observed and, in addition to this, the students answered the questionnaire and the teachers were interviewed. The results showed that there were several factors that triggered the students' use of the native language and the ultimate reason for switching to the native language was often to facilitate the learning process. Typical situations in which the students switched to Swedish were when they communicated with their peers or when they encountered unfamiliar words. Moreover, the results suggest that the teacher plays an important role for the choice of code in the classroom through his/her own language use and attitude towards code-switching. Neither of the interviewed teachers nor the majority of the students thought that there were any positive aspects to code-switching.

Esta pesquisa tem como argumento o estudo da comutação de códigos, isto é, a passagem do italiano ao português e vice-versa efetuado por professores e estudantes durante as aulas de italiano como língua estrangeira. O presente estudo é baseado em um corpus constituído de registros efetuados junto aos cursos elementares, intermediários e avançados de italiano no Campus da USP. Tendo como modelo de referência a Análise da Conversação, o estudo iluminou as várias funções realizadas pela comutação enfocando o contexto discursivo. Dos exemlpos examinados emergiu que as maiorias das alterações foram iniciadas pelos alunos e não pelos professores. As categorias que foram identificadas são: alteração da gestão das atividades de classe, alteração do léxico e da gramatica, alteração como afirmação do eu pessoa. Enquanto os estudantes utilizam indistintamente o português tanto no nível elementar como avançado, os professores apresentam grande variação entre si, dependendo do estilo didático e do tipo de atividade que está realizando. Para concluir, acreditamos que o uso da língua materna durante as aulas de língua estrangeira possa representar um recurso, uma estratégia para o desenvolvimento de uma competência multi-línguas e multi-cultural mais que um obstáculo à aprendizagem. . / This research focuses on the study of code-switching, the switching from italian to portuguese and vice versa done by teachers and students during Italian foreign language classes. This work is based on a corpus of registers gathered in elementary, intermediate and advanced classes of Italian as a second language at the USP Campus. Using as a reference model Conversation Analysis, this research sheds light over several functions of code-switching under the discourse context. The data shows that most of the code-switching was initiaded by the students and not by the teachers. The categories that were assessed were: changing of class management activities, shifiting for lexical or grammar clarification, shifting as assertion of the self. While students use Portuguese indistinctly in elementary and advanced levels, teachers tend to show great variation, depending on individual didatical style and the kind of activity in course. In conclusion, we belive that the use of mother language in a foreign language context might represent a resource, a strategy for the development of multi-language and multi-cultural competences more than a hazard to learning.

The purpose of this essay is to investigate pupils’ attitudes towards spoken English and towards speaking in front of their friends, and how these attitudes appear to be related to their oral communication and communicative behaviour in the classroom. The material was collected by video taping two classes, a questionnaire in these two classes and by interviewing their teacher. The results show that motivation and anxiety are psychological factors that play a significant role in the learning process. Attitudes, both towards the target language and towards their own production affect pupils’ willingness to communicate, and consequently their oral production in different tasks. The larger the group is, the more anxious they become. In order to motivate pupils, a variety of exercises is needed, where the topic is of great importance to awaken their interest for communication. The teacher also needs to circulate in the classroom to avoid a situation where pupils switch to their first language. Otherwise, pupils appear to code-switch as soon as an opportunity presents itself, which was observed in the analyses of recorded lessons.

This study aims to investigate Namibian teachers’ attitudes towards English as a medium of instruction in Namibian classrooms. Regardless of the fact that English has no historical ties with Namibia, English still operates as the official language and the language of instruction in schools. This study briefly discusses the probable reasons for choosing English as an official language in Namibia, and as the medium of instruction in educational institutions. Furthermore, it discusses the attitudes that Namibian teachers have towards English as a medium of instruction in Namibian classrooms. A pilot electronic questionnaire, a revised questionnaire, and telephone interviews were used to acquire data for the study. The results indicate that English is a challenge for many learners and this poses a challenge to teachers as well. However, a majority of teachers from this study portray English as the language that is capable of uniting Namibian learners from different backgrounds, and a language that makes education possible in Namibia. In addition, teachers also reported that knowledge of English opens up educational opportunities for learners to study abroad.

This essay is a study of how English is used in a Swedish discussion forum called Flashback. The mixing of two languages when speaking or writing is called Code switching. Code switching often occurs in bilingual societies. In Sweden it is possible to say that English is a second language due to the daily encounter with the language through education, but also through different media. The daily encounter with English and the number of English loan words in Swedish might be a reason why code switching exists in Sweden. The material that was analyzed in this essay was collected from Flashback and analyzed with a method based on Sharp’s (2001) study of spoken language. The aim of this study was to see how often and in what way the users on Flashback code switched between Swedish and English. The results showed that even though English was used in the discussion, Swedish was the main language. Most of the code switches that were found in the material occurred in mixed units, in other words English was mixed with Swedish.

Cette thèse, intitulée "L’enseignement traditionnel en Mauritanie : rôle éducatif et perspectives d’évolution", porte sur l’histoire et la situation actuelle de ce type d’enseignement, notamment de sa principale institution : la mahadra. La première partie du travail comprend une présentation de la Mauritanie dans ses différentes dimensions (géographique, historique, socio-culturelle, linguistique…), puis l’étude du système éducatif traditionnel en Mauritanie à l’époque précoloniale et coloniale, et celle du rôle de la mahadra dans la préservation de l’identité culturelle du pays. Dans une seconde partie, il est question de l’enseignement traditionnel depuis l’indépendance du pays jusqu’à nos jours. Il s’agit de passer en revue l’état de ce type d’enseignement et d’examiner l’évolution des politiques menées par les pouvoirs publics dans ce domaine. Nous analysons la situation actuelle de l’enseignement traditionnel, s’agissant aussi bien des écoles ou instituts publics et privés que des mahadras. Enfin, dans la troisième et dernière partie, il est question de l’interprétation des résultats d’une enquête que nous avons réalisée en février - juillet 2011 dans certaines mahadras et autres institutions de l’enseignement traditionnel et de l’interaction entre enseignement moderne et système traditionnel. Sont également étudiées les expériences et études réalisées dans ce domaine depuis l’introduction des médersas, au début du XXe siècle, jusqu’à nos jours. / The present study, entitled "Traditional teaching in Mauritania: educational role and perspective of evolution", is about history and nowadays situation of the traditional Islamic teaching in this country. The first part of the work includes a presentation of Mauritania in its various geographical, historical, socio-cultural and linguistic dimensions. The traditional education system in pre-colonial period as well as colonial period is discussed in this part; the role of mahadra in the conservation of the cultural identity of the country is highlighted. In the second part, traditional teaching and other different kinds of teaching are described since the independence of the country until now. We examine the evolution of the policies carried out by the public authorities in this field. The present situation of the traditional education, as well as that of other public and private institutes, is then discussed. Finally, in the third and last part, we give an interpretation of the results of the survey we conducted in February - July 2011 in some mahadras and institutions of traditional education. We analyze also the interactions between public school and traditional system, in the light of some experiments and studies carried out in this field since the introduction of the medersas, in the beginning of the XXth century, until now.

This study aims at generating an understanding of today's teaching in English. The study  seeks to find out in what extent teachers in grade 4-6 speak English during the lessons in English and on what occasions the teacher chooses to use the English language. The work empiricism consists of two different methods, classroom observations and qualitative interviews. In order to get such a broad picture of teacher's English teaching as possible, classroom observations were conducted first and then supplemented with an interview. Respondents participating in this study work in the municipal sector at four different schools in central Sweden.          The study shows that English as an teaching language is used at all times during the lesson, and that English is the most used teaching language. The teaching language fluctuates a lot, and the teachers who participated in this study mainly choose languages according to the group and the pupils in the group. All participating teachers used Swedish as a tool to answer the students' questions and guide them. The teachers primarily want to create a safe place for the students and to make sure everyone understands what´s being said on the lessons. / Denna studie syftar till att generera förståelse för dagens undervisning i engelska. Jag undersöker i denna studie i vilken utsträckning lärare i 4-6 talar engelska under lektionerna i engelska och vid vilka tillfällen läraren väljer att använda det engelska språket. Arbetets empiri utgörs av två olika metoder, klassrumsobservationer och kvalitativa intervjuer. För att få en sådan bred bild av lärares engelskundervisning som möjligt så genomfördes klassrumsobservationerna först och kompletterades sedan med en intervju. Respondenterna som deltar i denna studie arbetar inom den kommunala sektorn på fyra olika skolor i Mellansverige.          Studien visar att engelska som undervisningsspråk används under alla tillfällena under lektionens gång och att engelska är också det undervisningsspråk som används mest. Undervisningsspråket växlar väldigt mycket och lärarna som deltog i denna studie väljer främst att välja språk utefter vilken grupp och vilka elever som finns i gruppen. Alla deltagande lärare använder svenska som ett verktyg för att besvara elevernas frågor och vägleda dem. Lärarna vill i första hand skapa trygghet för eleverna och vill säkerställa att alla ska känna att de förstår vad som sägs.