Le présent mémoire de maîtrise renvoie à une analyse des situations de diffamation commise par l'avocat, dans le cadre d'une instance judiciaire, à l'égard de la partie adverse, de son représentant et du témoin. L'étude s'inscrit dans un double dessein de prévention et de sensibilisation auprès de la communauté juridique. L'interrogation inhérente à l'étude consiste à savoir si l'avocat est considéré à l'instar de tout particulier dans les poursuites pour diffamation civile. Doit-il conséquemment observer strictement ses devoirs de conduite professionnelle afin d'éviter toute situation potentiellement diffamatoire? Tout d'abord, nous cernerons le concept de diffamation civile en droit québécois en regard des sources législatives, des droits de la personnalité ou fondamentaux traités, ainsi que des éléments matériels juridiques constitutifs. À la lueur de cet exposé didactique, nous identifierons les devoirs de conduite professionnelle de l'avocat, dans le cadre d'une instance judiciaire, visant la proscription d'allégations diffamatoires. Il s'agit plus particulièrement des devoirs de modération et de courtoisie de l'avocat à l'égard des tiers. Enfin, nous examinerons la mise en oeuvre de la responsabilité civile de l'avocat en matière de diffamation. Plus spécifiquement, nous analyserons sa faute civile suivant les critères d'appréciation qui renvoient à la pertinence, à la véracité et à la bonne foi. Par ailleurs, nous critiquerons le recours, par la doctrine et la jurisprudence québécoises, à l'immunité relative de l'avocat. Nous référerons à la terminologie inadéquate d'«immunité relative» et à l'importation injustifiée de la common law en droit de la responsabilité civile québécois. / The present Master's Thesis studies the defamatory actions committed by the attorney towards the opposing party, the latter's representative and the witness. The study seeks to find ways of preventing defamation and heightening awareness for attorneys. The following questions will be examined : should an attorney be considered as a common individual in defamation cases? Should he, therefore, strictly follow his professional duties of conduct to prevent potential defamation situations? First, we will analyse the nature of defamation in Quebec civil law by looking at the laws governing it, the fundamental and personality rights attached to it and the juridical elements constituting it. In light of this, we will then identify the attorney's professional conduct duties with respect to his written and oral allegations. More particularly, the need to act with moderation and courtesy towards the third party will be discussed. Finally, the application of the attorney's civil responsibility will be examined, more specifically his civil fault in light of the following criteria: relevance, truthfulness and good faith. Moreover, the concepts related to the attorney's qualified privilege will also be assessed and criticized.

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Le présent mémoire de maîtrise renvoie à une analyse des situations de diffamation commise par l'avocat, dans le cadre d'une instance judiciaire, à l'égard de la partie adverse, de son représentant et du témoin. L'étude s'inscrit dans un double dessein de prévention et de sensibilisation auprès de la communauté juridique. L'interrogation inhérente à l'étude consiste à savoir si l'avocat est considéré à l'instar de tout particulier dans les poursuites pour diffamation civile. Doit-il conséquemment observer strictement ses devoirs de conduite professionnelle afin d'éviter toute situation potentiellement diffamatoire? Tout d'abord, nous cernerons le concept de diffamation civile en droit québécois en regard des sources législatives, des droits de la personnalité ou fondamentaux traités, ainsi que des éléments matériels juridiques constitutifs. À la lueur de cet exposé didactique, nous identifierons les devoirs de conduite professionnelle de l'avocat, dans le cadre d'une instance judiciaire, visant la proscription d'allégations diffamatoires. Il s'agit plus particulièrement des devoirs de modération et de courtoisie de l'avocat à l'égard des tiers. Enfin, nous examinerons la mise en oeuvre de la responsabilité civile de l'avocat en matière de diffamation. Plus spécifiquement, nous analyserons sa faute civile suivant les critères d'appréciation qui renvoient à la pertinence, à la véracité et à la bonne foi. Par ailleurs, nous critiquerons le recours, par la doctrine et la jurisprudence québécoises, à l'immunité relative de l'avocat. Nous référerons à la terminologie inadéquate d'«immunité relative» et à l'importation injustifiée de la common law en droit de la responsabilité civile québécois. / The present Master's Thesis studies the defamatory actions committed by the attorney towards the opposing party, the latter's representative and the witness. The study seeks to find ways of preventing defamation and heightening awareness for attorneys. The following questions will be examined : should an attorney be considered as a common individual in defamation cases? Should he, therefore, strictly follow his professional duties of conduct to prevent potential defamation situations? First, we will analyse the nature of defamation in Quebec civil law by looking at the laws governing it, the fundamental and personality rights attached to it and the juridical elements constituting it. In light of this, we will then identify the attorney's professional conduct duties with respect to his written and oral allegations. More particularly, the need to act with moderation and courtesy towards the third party will be discussed. Finally, the application of the attorney's civil responsibility will be examined, more specifically his civil fault in light of the following criteria: relevance, truthfulness and good faith. Moreover, the concepts related to the attorney's qualified privilege will also be assessed and criticized. / "Mémoire présenté à la Faculté des études supérieures en vue de l'obtention du grade de Maître en droit (LL.M.)". Ce mémoire a été accepté et classé parmi les 5% des mémoires de la discipline. Commentaires du jury : "Mémoire de très haute tenue. Recherche exhaustive. Traitement original du sujet, langue impeccable. Pourrait faire l'objet d'une monographie."

Summaries in Afrikaans and English / Text in Afrikaans / Die siviele lasterreg word gekenmerk deur verdeeldheid aangaande bewyspligtigheid. 'n Unieke situasie doen horn voor: weerlegbare regsvermoedens van onregmatigheid en animus iniuriandi word opgevolg deur verskeie regsverdigingsgronde. Bykomend hiertoe stel die Grondwet die vereiste van konstitusionele regverdiging vir beperkings op fundamentele regte. 'n Oorsig oor die regspraak in sowel die voorgrondwetlike - as na-grondwetlike bedeling, dui op 'n versuim deur die howe om behoorlik aandag te skenk aan die bewyspligtigheidsgevolge van die regverskynsels wat hulself in die lasterreg voordoen. In hierdie verhandeling word bewyspligtigheid in lastersake krities ondersoek om vas te stel of dit die reg korrek weerspieel en om 'n werkbare bewyslasformule vir lasteraksies in 'n konstitusionele litigasie te vind. Daar word voorgestel dat die probleem opgelos word deur 'n tweefase-benadering: Die eiser moet in die eerste fase die omvang van sy reg bewys en dat daarop inbreuk gemaak is. In die tweede fase moet die verweerder sy regverdigingsgronde bewys, asook dat dit konstitusioneel regverdigbaar is. / The civil law of defamation is marked by discord regarding onus of proof. A unique situation evidences itself: rebuttable presumptions of law concerning unlawfulness and animus iniuriandi are followed by various grounds of justification. In addition thereto the Constitution sets the requirement of constitutional justification for limitations on fundamental rights. An overview of case law in the pre-constitutional as well as the post-constitutional dispensation, indicates a failure by the courts to pay proper attention to the evidentiary consequences of the legal phenomena found in the law of defamation. In this dissertation onus of proof in defamation cases is critically examined to ascertain whether it reflects the law correctly and to find a workable "onus of proof" -formula for defamation cases in a constitutional dispensation. It is suggested that the problem be solved by a two stage approach: in the first phase, the plaintiff must prove the extent of his right and the encroachment thereof . In the second phase the defendant must prove his grounds of justification and show that they are constitutionally justifiable. / Constitutional, International and Indigenous Law / LL.M.

This thesis conducts a survey on initiatives of Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) in United Nations in combating so called "defamation of religion". Firstly the thesis provides with a historical context of this issue, afterwards it gives information about OIC itself. Subsequently it deals with the UN resolutions concerning "defamation of religion" and related documents. Final part of the thesis gives an analysis of problematic issues of the initiative and possible impacts of adopting an internationally binding legislation.

In our time, it has become easy to contribute to the general pool of knowledge: Tell somebody about events that have just happened and think yourself useful, publish a video of a crime and make history, put up a rumour and ruin someone’s career. My question is: Can we talk about counter-knowledge when it comes to news-contributors who are not journalists but have mobile phones from which they can send messages and photos? I will first outline why the idea of counter-knowledge is attractive, then sketch it as defined by French philosopher Michel Foucault. My third point is about ways of writing which produce counter-knowledge, before finally asking if sending an image can have the same effect.

Ce mémoire porte sur le processus de racialisation des personnes de confession et/ou de culture musulmane. Il cherche à éclairer la manière dont cette racialisation s’incarne à l’égard des personnes musulmanes qui prennent part aux débats sociopolitiques de leur société (plus spécifiquement ceux entourant les enjeux de laïcité et de signes religieux). La posture scientifique adoptée allie expérience individuelle et analyse sociologique. Dans le cadre analysé, la participation à un débat public au Québec, en 2013 et 2014, autour d’un projet de loi sur la laïcité et la neutralité religieuse de l’État (le projet de loi no 60) a donné lieu à une campagne de diffamation ciblant l’auteure de cette recherche et culminant en une démarche en justice. Ce type de diffamation, qui a pour cible une personne musulmane, puise dans un registre conspirationniste de l’islamisation et de l’infiltration des institutions démocratiques et des organisations de la société civile par les musulman.es vivant dans les sociétés occidentales. À travers un cas comme celui-ci, il est possible d’observer, par une sorte d’effet grossissant, une cristallisation de plusieurs propriétés de la racialisation telle qu’elle s’incarne à l’égard des personnes musulmanes. L’analyse mobilise des vidéos et des publications diffusées sur un blogue actif en 2013 et 2014, véhiculant des thèses conspirationnistes anti-islam, des documents tirés du dossier juridique (poursuite en diffamation), ainsi qu’une reconstruction narrative des évènements. / This dissertation examines the process of racialization of people of Muslim faith and/or culture. It seeks to shed light on the way in which this racialization is exemplified with regard to Muslims who participate in the political and social debates within their society (more precisely, the debates concerning secularism and religious symbols). The scientific approach adopted in this dissertation combines individual experience and sociological analysis. In the case being studied, the participation by the author of this research in a public debate in Quebec, in 2013 and 2014, surrounding a bill on State secularism and religious neutrality (Bill 60) gave rise to a smear campaign targeting her and culminating in legal action. Since the target of this campaign was Muslim, the defamation drew on conspiracy tropes of Islamisation and the infiltration of democratic institutions and of civil society organizations by Muslims living in Western societies. By studying a case such as this it is possible to observe, by a kind of magnifying effect, the crystallisation of several properties of racialization as it is exemplified with regards to Muslims. The analysis in this dissertation employs videos and posts published on a blog that was active in 2013 and 2014 that peddled in anti-Muslim conspiracy theory, documents from the legal file (defamation suit), as well as a narrative reconstruction of the events.

The Committee to Protect Journalists (CPJ) is one of many nonprofit, nongovernmental organizations that work to defend press freedom and the safety of journalists in Latin America. Based on qualitative interviews with employees at the CPJ, open surveys with journalists who have been helped by the CPJ, historical archive research, and informal participant observation, this study shows that organized domestic and international nongovernmental groups can and do make improvements on behalf of journalists and press freedom in Latin America. The CPJ's activities raise issues and place them on the agenda, and they influence discourse, policy, institutional procedures, and state behavior. Effectiveness at these levels is conditioned upon the involvement of local press groups, target audiences, the issues addressed, the credibility and authority of the CPJ, and the organization's connections within the worldwide press freedom network. This case study helps fill a significant gap in the research on transnational advocacy and its influence, and provides a foundation upon which to further explore the roles of advocacy networks in the international community.

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Internet intermediaries facilitate a wide range of conduct using services supplied over the layered architecture of modern communications networks. Members of this class include search engines, social networks, internet service providers, website operators, hosts, and payment gateways, which together exert a critical and growing influence upon national and global economies, governments and cultures. This research examines who should face legal responsibility when wrongdoers utilise these services tortiously to cause harm to others. It has three parts. Part 1 seeks to understand the nature of an intermediary and how its liability differs from the liability of primary defendants. It classifies intermediaries according to a new layered, functional taxonomy and argues that many instances of secondary liability in English private law reflect shared features and underlying policies, including optimal loss-avoidance and derivative liability premised on an assumption of responsibility. Part 2 analyses intermediaries’ monetary liability for secondary wrongdoing in two areas of English law: defamation and copyright. It traces the historical evolution of these doctrines at successive junctures in communications technology, before identifying and defending limits on that liability which derive from three main sources: (i) in-built limits contained in definitions of secondary wrongdoing; (ii) European safe harbours and general limits on remedies; and (iii) statutory defences and exceptions. Part 3 examines intermediaries’ non-monetary liability, in particular their obligations to disclose information about alleged primary wrongdoers and to cease facilitating wrongdoing where it is necessary and proportionate to do so. It proposes a new suite of non-facilitation remedies designed to restrict access to tortious internet materials, remove such materials from search engines, and reduce the profitability of wrongdoing. It concludes with several recommendations to improve the effectiveness and proportionality of remedies by reference to considerations of architecture, anonymity, efficient procedures, and fundamental rights.