Student Number : 9901978A - MA research report - School of Human and Community Development - Faculty of Humanities / This research explored the relationship between gender identity, body image and ego strength in men. A questionnaire consisting of a demographic section, the Bem Sex Role Inventory, the Adonis Complex Questionnaire- Revised, and the Psychosocial Inventory of Ego Strength was administered to 74 male students from the School of Actuarial Science and Statistics at the University of the Witwatersrand during lecture time. Correlation analyses were used to infer the relationships between the three variables, while a multiple regression assessed whether particular combinations of gender identity and ego strength could predict higher body image dissatisfaction. The results showed that both masculinity and androgyny had a positive effect on body image satisfaction, as did higher ego strength. The latter was also positively correlated with both femininity and masculinity, though not with androgyny. Body image disturbance did not correlate with any dimension of gender identity or ego strength. With regard to the interaction between the variables, higher ego strength was found to have a moderating effect on body image dissatisfaction in men who endorsed femininity, but not with men who endorsed masculinity. An androgynous orientation further predicted lower body image dissatisfaction irrespective of the degree of ego strength. Limitations of the study and recommendations for future research are discussed.

Body dissatisfaction (BD) is a condition derived from negative thoughts and feelings about one's body and is a core symptom of the eating disorder anorexia nervosa (AN). Beingdissatisfied with one’s body is highly present in women and to some extent men. This might be a result of a skewed ideal in combination with social influences. In recent year, research on neurobiological risk factors as well as neuroscientific and cognitive mappings of AN and BD have gained traction, particularly when it comes to studies using neuroimaging- techniques and cognitive tests. Studies have identified brain regions (insular cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, parietal cortex, amygdala, dorsolateral and orbitofrontal areas of the prefrontal cortex) associated with the processing of body shape as well as dysfunctional processing of self-image and body satisfaction. Structural imaging studies of AN patients using CT and MRI have, in many cases, found reduced cerebral volume, increased spinal fluid (CSF) and enlarged ventricles. Usually, food and water restriction has been seen as the cause, and structural deficits in AN patients have shown to improve with weight gain after long-term recovery.

Ce travail doctoral s'intéresse au phénomène de vengeance du consommateur insatisfait sur Internet et l'effet de cette action sur les attitudes des autres consommateurs. Deux études qualitatives et trois expérimentations ont été réalisées. Les résultats démontrent que la vengeance d'un consommateur insatisfait sur Internet est largement approuvée et elle influence défavorablement l'attitude à l'égard de la marque. Les individus exposés à la vengeance sur le Web, manifestent des sentiments d'empathie et d'admiration pour le vengeur et son action. La bonne nouvelle pour les marques, est qu'il existe des moyens de neutraliser cet effet. / This doctoral research focuses on the phenomenon of dissatisfied consumers revenge on the Internet and the effect of this action on other consumers attitudes. Two qualitative studies and three experiments were performed. The results show that the dissatisfied consumer revenge on the Internet is widely approved and it adversely affects brand attitude. Individuals exposed to a revenge on the Web, show feelings of empathy and admiration for the avenger and his action. The good news for brands is that there are ways to counteract this effect.

Relationship satisfaction is positively related to life satisfaction and subjective well-being. The main aim of this thesis was to investigate what features that may explain satisfaction and dissatisfaction in friendship versus romantic relationships, and to compare the results. This study also aimed to examine the association between perceived loneliness and the degree of satisfaction in friendship versus romantic relationships. A questionnaire was distributed to a group of 93 university students between the ages of 18 to 41 years. Through thematic analysis it was found that balance, communication, closeness, support, trust, understanding, safety and conflict management were satisfying features in both types of relationships. Lacks of these features were found to be dissatisfying. Other dissatisfying features in romantic relationships were worry, lack of time and stress and in friendship relationships feelings of alienation and superficial relationships were dissatisfying features. Statistical analyses showed a negative association between friendship satisfaction and perceived loneliness. A tendency to a similar association with romantic relationship satisfaction emerged. Yet, there were also indications of the reverse in regard to romantic relationship satisfaction. Moreover, the possibility that friendship relationships might be more important than romantic relationships for university students in order for them not to feel lonely was discussed. / Relationstillfredsställelse har ett positivt samband med livstillfredsställelse och subjektivt välmående. Huvudsyftet med denna studie var att undersöka vilka faktorer som skulle kunna förklara tillfredsställelse såväl som otillfredsställelse i vänskaps- respektive kärleksrelationer, samt jämföra dessa resultat. Studien ämnade även undersöka sambandet mellan upplevd ensamhet och graden av tillfredsställelse i vänskaps- respektive kärleksrelationer. En enkät delades ut till 93 universitetsstudenter i åldrarna 18-41 år. Genom tematisk analys framkom balans, kommunikation, närhet, stöd, tillit, förståelse, trygghet och konflikthantering som tillfredsställande faktorer i de båda relationstyperna. Brist på dessa faktorer framkom som otillfredsställande. Andra otillfredsställande faktorer i kärleksrelationer var oro, tidsbrist och stress medan känslor av utanförskap och ytliga relationer framkom som otillfredsställande i vänskapsrelationer. Statistiska analyser påvisade ett negativt samband mellan tillfredsställelse i vänskapsrelationer och upplevd ensamhet. Tendenser till ett liknande samband med tillfredsställelse i kärleksrelationer kunde ses. Trots detta fanns även indikationer för ett motsatt samband gällande tillfredsställelse i kärleksrelationer. Dessutom diskuterades möjligheten att vänskapsrelationer kan vara av större betydelse än kärleksrelationer för att universitetsstudenter inte ska känna sig ensamma.

This research explored trends in male body image amongst South African men aged 18 to 25 years. A questionnaire consisting of a demographic section, the Body Image Test, the Behaviours Checklist and the Eating Disorders Inventory was administered to 50 male students from the University of the Witwatersrand. Trends in body dissatisfaction, body enhancing behaviour and eating disorder symptoms were examined. Correlation analyses were used to infer relationships between these three variables. The results showed that the sample group on average view themselves as overly muscular and have a body image ideal that is less muscular than their perceived body image. This trend is contrary to trends reported in international studies and is thought to represent the cultural effects of using a South African population that is diverse in its composition as compared to an American or European samples that are more homogenous in nature. The results also showed that there were differences in body image trends between different racial groupings, although the results did indicate that across the racial groupings there was a similar societal body image ideal that represents a global trend towards a lean, muscular male body image. The results showed that the sample did not engage in body enhancing behaviours that are considered excessive or indicative of body image dissatisfaction. This was also reflected by the results on the Eating Disorders Inventory that showed considerably lower scores on the symptom scales when compared to a clinical eating disordered population and a non-clinical female comparison group. The results also showed that the sample had lower scores on the behavioural symptom scales yet higher scores on the attitudinal symptom scales. This indicates that the sample did not display any significant eating disorder behaviours yet did display personality traits that are correlated to eating disordered behaviour. There was no correlation between body dissatisfaction and body enhancing behaviour. There was a positive correlation between body dissatisfaction and the symptom scale of interpersonal distrust. A positive correlation also occurred between body enhancing behaviour and the symptom scales for perfection and drive for thinness. Limitations of the study and recommendations for future research are discussed.

The goal of the presented research was to examine the relationship between relational satisfaction and nonverbal interpretation during a conflict. Specifically, we hypothesized that participants who reported being dissatisfied with their closest relationship would be more likely to make negative interpretations of facial expressions during a conflict episode. Participants completed a survey that measured their relationship status, level of satisfaction, and interpretations of descriptions of facial expressions being made during a series of conflict scenarios. Developing a better understanding of the role of nonverbal behaviors may help encourage healthier conflict management

This study examines portrayals of adolescent girls on Music Television (MTV). A content analysis of 26 hours of MTV programming was conducted and analyzed using quantitative and qualitative methods. Analyzed programming was shown August-November 2001. Dates were chosen randomly; times were chosen randomly from the pools of hours in which adolescents usually watch television. Adolescent girls predominantly appear in the background of MTV programs. Many of them cheer for male celebrities, but only 12% speak. The content analysis reveals that a narrow beauty ideal is promoted on the channel-most girls are thin, White, and wearing revealing clothing. It is argued that MTV portrayals exacerbate girls' body dissatisfaction, sexual objectification, and confidence slide. This study is significant because the stories told on MTV are reflected in the lived world, and those stories suggest that girls should sit quietly in the background and be thin and White to be considered beautiful.

Perceptions of Marital Dissatisfaction Among African American Couples by Terrence Schofield MS, Walden University, 2012 BS, Knoxville College, 1994 Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Clinical Psychology Walden University August 2016

The current study was an investigation of the self-schema and social comparison theories of the development of body dissatisfaction. Social comparison stimuli, consisting of photographs of women, were piloted and selected to form 3 stimuli sets: upward comparison, downward comparison, and no comparison. A priming manipulation consisting of an imagery exercise intended to prime participants appearance self-schema was also piloted. Participants completed state measures of body image and mood at pretest, were given the priming manipulation and the social comparison stimuli, then completed posttest measures of mood and body image, as well as providing demographic information. Results indicated no significant interaction between priming and social comparison and no significant main effect for priming. However, there was a significant effect of social comparison, such that those in the downward comparison condition showed decreased body dissatisfaction and negative mood. Results are discussed in the context of self-schema theory and social comparison, and suggestions are given for future research that might further shed light on these topics.

Research has documented the impact of peer influences on adolescents for health risk behaviors such as smoking and drinking alcohol. However, few studies have done an in-depth investigation of peer-related risk and protective factors affecting body dissatisfaction and disordered eating among adolescent girls. The study sample consisted of 344 adolescent girls from high schools in Pasco County, Florida. Participants completed questionnaires assessing the impact of peers on their weight and appearance attitudes, beliefs and behaviors. Participants also identified their close friends (using a coding system) and rated their own figures. Trained research assistants provided objective figure ratings for the participants. The participants completed measures assessing body dissatisfaction, drive for thinness, bulimic symptoms and self-esteem (criterion variables). Results of the analyses indicated that participants were not significantly similar to their nominated friends in the criterion variables. Correlations between peer variables and criterion variables were significant supporting peer-related risk factors. Findings of correlation and regression analyses were inconsistent for the predicted protective factor of friend anti-dieting advice. A significant amount of variance in the criterion variables of body dissatisfaction, drive for thinness, bulimic symptoms and self-esteem was predicted by the peer influence variables. Results supported the hypothesis that comparison would serve as a mediator between peer influence and the criterion variables. Internalization and peer suppression of feelings functioned as mediators in the relationship between peer influence and self-esteem, bulimic symptoms and body dissatisfaction. Implications for future research and application of findings in intervention programs are discussed.