[pt] Nesta breve análise, utilizar-se-á de um viés analítico e descritivo de pesquisa para refletir sobre o exercício do sufrágio ativo, a concessão do direito de voto, enquanto dimensão da cidadania, essencial para a consolidação dos direitos fundamentais dos estrangeiros residentes, especificamente nos casos dos ordenamentos do Brasil e da Argentina e, ainda, quais seriam as reais possibilidades de que tal concessão contribuísse para a incorporação ampla desse segmento social na vida política dessas comunidades em âmbito nacional, estadual e local. Para tal, dispõe-se a averiguar as condições fáticas e jurídicas que permeiam os diferentes níveis de restrição ao direito de voto para estrangeiros residentes e nãonaturalizados, nos territórios da Argentina e do Brasil, fere per si a consolidação dos direitos humanos nesses ordenamentos e se ainda, consequentemente, isso impediria o exercício pleno dos demais direitos fundamentais desses indivíduos. Na busca por tais informações, serão estudados os argumentos de viés teórico no que diz respeito às possibilidades de contemplar os estrangeiros não-naturalizados, com a participação cidadã na sociedade através do direito de voto, a partir de uma revisão de literatura acerca da teoria da cidadania pós-nacional, preocupando-se em explicar como a expansão da participação política beneficia os imigrantes, bem como a comunidade receptora, através da consolidação dos direitos humanos. A dissertação utilizará o método dedutivo, através de pesquisa descritiva da bibliografia e análise de dados serão os principais instrumentos de investigação, objetivando compreender o significado dos aspectos inerentes à cidadania, à participação política e à soberania nacional. / [en] In this brief analysis, an analytical and descriptive research bias will be used to reflect on the exercise of active suffrage, the granting of the right to vote, as a dimension of citizenship, essential for the consolidation of the fundamental rights of resident foreigners, specifically in the cases of the Brazilian and Argentine legal systems, and what would be the real possibilities for such a concession to contribute to the broad incorporation of this social segment into the political life of these communities at the national, state and local levels. To this end, it intends to investigate the factual and legal conditions that permeate the different levels of restriction on the right to vote for resident and non-naturalized foreigners in the territories of Argentina and Brazil, which in itself undermines the consolidation of human rights in these legal systems. and whether, consequently, this would prevent the full exercise of the other fundamental rights of these individuals. In the search for such information, the theoretical bias arguments will be studied concerning the possibilities of contemplating non-naturalized foreigners, with citizen participation in society through the right to vote, from a literature review on the theory of postnational citizenship, concerned with explaining how the expansion of political participation benefits immigrants, as well as the host community, through the consolidation of human rights. The dissertation will use the deductive method, through descriptive research of the bibliography and data analysis will be the main instruments of investigation, aiming to understand the meaning of the inherent aspects of citizenship, political participation, and national sovereignty.

This thesis is a historical study and evaluation of the form of church government practised by the Particular Baptists of the 17th and 18th centuries, from the years 1650 to 1750. This study is based on confessional statements, the ecclesiological literature, and the extant church books of the Particular Baptists. It is shown that the Particular Baptists practised a definitive form of church government known traditionally as Independency, similar to that expounded by John Owen, minus infant baptism. Under the principle of the autonomy of the church the Particular Baptists practised believer’s baptism, an explicit church membership, and upheld covenant theology. Under the principle of the headship of Christ, they practised the separation of church and state, upheld the divine right of the magistrate, and also believed in the liberty of conscience. Under the principle of rule by elders the majority of the Particular Baptists practised a plurality of elders in which there was a distinction made between the roles of the pastor or minister and the ruling elders, although they occupy the same basic office of rule. However, deviation from a plural eldership took place, leading to the singlepastor- and-multiple-deacons situation, accompanied by the disappearance of ruling elders and the practice of congregational democracy in governance. This arrangement is characteristic of modern Congregationalism. Under the principle of the communion of churches the regional associations of churches accomplished much good, while a number of issues remained unresolved, including open and closed communion, congregational hymn singing, and the training of ministers. In the final chapter, the study attempts to resolve some ecclesiological issues controverted among Reformed Baptists today by applying the lessons learned from the Particular Baptists. To the Particular Baptists, Independency was the jus divinum (divinely ordained) form of church government used by God as the vehicle to carry out the Great Commission with a view to establishing biblically ordered churches, which upheld the 1689 Baptist Confession of Faith. These three components of church life − mission-mindedness, biblical church order, and the 1689 Confession of Faith − arose from the thorough biblicism of the Particular Baptists. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Church and Dogma History))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012

Thesis advisor: Kenneth Himes / The category of jus post bellum (jpb, postwar justice and peace) is a welcome addition to discussions of the justice of war. The goal of this dissertation is to review the significance of this recent development within the just war tradition. This project is based on a proposition that just war should aim at just peace; peace does not mean the absence of armed conflict, but it requires the establishment of justice. There is no true peace if it exists for the strong but not for the weak, for the victor but not for the vanquished. At the heart of jpb is the establishment of a just peace. With this preliminary proposition in mind, this dissertation endeavors to challenge the view of those who argue that reconciliation, mainly political reconciliation, is the first and foremost ambition of jpb. Instead, it attempts to justify the proposition that achieving just policing, just punishment, and just political participation are key to building a just peace, of which the fundamental characteristic must be human security. In the immediate aftermath of war there is little or no policing, punishment, or avenues for political participation to protect the civilians of defeated states, especially the most vulnerable ones. Therefore, this project argues (i) that human security is a neglected theme in the discourse of moral and theological intellectual traditions; and (ii) that a more balanced understanding of jpb must pay direct attention to the elements comprising human security in a postwar context as well as the quest for reconciliation. In particular, holding a realistic view that war is inherently destructive of people, institutions, and infrastructure, this project focuses on justice in reconstruction—reconstruction of just policing, just punishment, and just political participation. This destruction raises questions about the fulfillment of justice in the damaged postwar society. Considering these issues through the lens of human security and political reconciliation theories, I propose my “maxim(um) of ethical minimalism” for jpb—the principle of achieving to the highest extent possible human security, which is the necessary and essential outcome for jpb. It is the norm for jpb of achieving the common good to the highest extent possible, with priority on human security, using nonviolent means insofar as possible and violent means when necessary. This proposal contends that determination of the content of the responsibilities for just war reconstruction should be specified on the basis of the damage to relationships that need to be not merely restored, but also fundamentally transformed in the postwar society that prevents future threats. This thesis pays particular attention to civil society peacebuilding, which needs to be considered only to the extent that it is an objective of the postwar discussion and to the extent it is affected by jpb decisions. Yet, my primary thesis is that this transformative vision of jpb should be distinguished from an extensive buildup of a civil society scheme, which requires a wider and longer range of peacebuilding efforts. Instead, it must be tempered by realism in a careful and concrete manner, since the priority should be given to human security in the immediate aftermath of war. This study is an exercise in applied political ethics that employs various disciplines—security studies, international law, and peacebuilding work—to address the topic of jpb as a means of illuminating the theological discourse. Plainly, I employ this literature to explore how contemporary scholars view the idea of jpb and how this relatively new development fits within the Christian tradition of just war, a moral tradition that is historically interdisciplinary. Further, this attempt is a valuable contribution to the just war tradition by identifying what I view as three key themes of jpb, namely, three practices that are essential to implementing jpb immediately after a war: just policing, just punishment, and just political participation. While examining the interrelated challenges of moral and social norms in both political and legal domains, this dissertation proposes an innovative methodology for linking theology, ethics, and social science so that the ideal and the real can inform each other in the ethics of war and peacebuilding. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2018. / Submitted to: Boston College. Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Theology.

Submitted by Leticia Alvarenga (leticiaalvarenga@fdv.br) on 2018-08-28T16:02:11Z No. of bitstreams: 1 CHRISTIANO AUGUSTO MENEGATTI.pdf: 1720705 bytes, checksum: 73c9dd61e4bd8f8f19cbdbd00d66da0a (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Ana Paula Galdino (repositorio@fdv.br) on 2018-08-29T14:24:15Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 CHRISTIANO AUGUSTO MENEGATTI.pdf: 1720705 bytes, checksum: 73c9dd61e4bd8f8f19cbdbd00d66da0a (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-29T14:24:15Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 CHRISTIANO AUGUSTO MENEGATTI.pdf: 1720705 bytes, checksum: 73c9dd61e4bd8f8f19cbdbd00d66da0a (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009-09-05 / Trata de pesquisa sobre o instituto do jus postulandi que busca avaliar a sua conveniência e a sua compatibilidade com a garantia fundamental da assistência jurídica integral e gratuita estatuída no artigo 5º, LXXIV, da Constituição Brasileira de 1988, analisada sob o prisma do acesso à justiça, buscando aferir se o instituto propicia aos que dele fazem uso um acesso efetivo à justiça. O método utilizado foi o hipotético-dedutivo e por meio de revisão bibliográfica aborda, no primeiro capítulo, o instituto do jus postulandi, seu conceito, sua terminologia, suas raízes históricas e sua disciplina legal na legislação brasileira e estrangeira. No segundo capítulo, busca contextualizar o acesso à justiça em três momentos distintos, quais sejam: a concepção de Mauro Cappelletti e Bryant Garth; o repensar do tema à luz da hodierna doutrina nacional e estrangeira e, por fim, a sedimentação desses conceitos no ordenamento jurídico brasileiro, na qualidade de direito fundamental e diretriz do Estado Democrático de Direito. Busca evidenciar no terceiro capítulo a superação do instituto do jus postulandi em razão da garantia constitucional do devido processo legal dentro do almejado cenário do acesso efetivo à justiça, a importância dos profissionais da advocacia neste mister, o contra-senso da decisão proferida pelo Supremo Tribunal Federal na Ação Direta de Inconstitucionalidade nº 1127-8 e, por fim, outros elementos de ordem prática que tornam inviável a permanência deste instituto no ordenamento jurídico brasileiro. No quarto capítulo, trata-se das Defensorias Públicas, de seu escopo constitucional e sua operacionalidade, bem como da assistência jurídica provida por órgãos não estatais. Com base na análise feita, a conclusão obtida é no sentido de que o jus postulandi não se coaduna com as diretrizes firmadas na Constituição Brasileira de 1988 vez que atende apenas o aspecto formal das diretrizes do acesso à justiça em sua moderna concepção, devendo o Estado prover aos necessitados os meios necessários ao resguardo de seus direitos, sobretudo no que toca ao patrocínio das causas perante o Judiciário por meio de profissionais devidamente habilitados. / This research deals with the establishment of “jus postulandi”, which seeks to evaluate its convenience and its compatibility with the fundamental pledge of complete and free of charge juridical assistance determined at the 5th article, LXXIV, from Brazilian Constitution of 1988, evaluated through the access of justice prism, it seeks to appraise if the establishment propitiates an effective access to justice to those who may use it. In order to analyze the proposed problem, the hypothetic-deductive method is used and through bibliographical review it approaches, on the first chapter, the establishment of “jus postulandi”, its concept, its terminology, its historical roots, and its discipline according to Brazilian and foreign legislations. On the second chapter, the work seeks to structure the access to the justice in three distinct moments, which are: the conception of Mauro Cappelletti and Bryant Garth, the rethink of the theme having in mind the national and foreign actual doctrine, and finally, the sedimentation of these concepts on the Brazilian juridical ordainment, as fundamental right and directory of The Legal Democratic State. Having this in mind, on the third chapter, this present work seeks to outreach of the establishment of jus postulandi due to constitutional warranty of the proper legal process effective access to justice in a preferred scenario, the importance of the law professionals in this service, the lack of consideration of the decision pronounced by “Federal” Supreme Court on the “Direct Action of Unconstitutionality” # 1127-8, at last, other practical elements which make unenviable the permanence of this establishment on the Brazilian juridical ordainment. On the fourth chapter, the work deals with Public Services, their constitutional purpose and their workability, as well as juridical assistance provided by non state agencies. Based on the analyze studied, the conclusion achieved is that jus postulandi does not coadunate with the directories determined on the Brazilian constitution of 1988, since on its modern conception, it only attends the directories formal aspects of justice access. The State must provide the necessary means to those in need, the protection of their rights, and above all in regard to sponsorship of causes before Judiciary by means of properly certified professionals. In this regard, jus postulandi must only remain in its residual form and be applied on situations where citizens, for personal reasons or for total impossibility of obtaining judicial assistance sponsored by the Government, decide to appear in Court personally unaccompanied of a properly certified professionals.

Submitted by Sara Ribeiro (sara.ribeiro@ucb.br) on 2017-12-15T16:33:10Z No. of bitstreams: 1 HenriqueGentilOliveiraDissertacao2017.pdf: 1745896 bytes, checksum: c4b14bbc2816b15c2c3d96dd6c2fec15 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Sara Ribeiro (sara.ribeiro@ucb.br) on 2017-12-15T16:33:29Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 HenriqueGentilOliveiraDissertacao2017.pdf: 1745896 bytes, checksum: c4b14bbc2816b15c2c3d96dd6c2fec15 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-12-15T16:33:29Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 HenriqueGentilOliveiraDissertacao2017.pdf: 1745896 bytes, checksum: c4b14bbc2816b15c2c3d96dd6c2fec15 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-10-25 / The global refugees crisis that settled in the 21st century brought a daunting scenario, whose solution, beyond politics, inter-state relations and the economy, necessarily goes through international human rights law. The focus of this dissertation is to contrast the critical scenario with the protection that the law sets on behalf of the refugees, the interpretation of it's values and the prospects that the correct application of the treaties can form an instrument to increase the lives of the displaced. There will be a brief historical analysis of the events relevant to the construction of the refuge institute and a critical analysis of the terminological definition brought by the 1951 Convention About the Refugees Status, concluding by it's insufficiency in the context of the 21st century and by the need for a re-reading that modernizes it's values. There is also space devoted to the principle of nonrefoulement, through it's historical construction, enforcement and it's jus cogens status. The paper will also focus on the new faces of migration and the details of the humanitarian crisis of the beginning of the 21st century, as well as the economic analysis of the reception of refugees by European states and the inviability of invocation of economic and political arguments for the return of refugees to places where their core rights may be at risk. / A crise mundial de refugiados que se instalou no s??culo XXI trouxe cen??rio desalentador, cuja solu????o, al??m do mundo da pol??tica, rela????es interestatais e da economia, necessariamente passa pelo direito internacional dos direitos humanos. O enfoque principal desta disserta????o ?? exatamente contrastar o cr??tico cen??rio com a prote????o conferida pelo direito posto em prol dos refugiados, a interpreta????o de seus preceitos e as perspectivas de que sua correta aplica????o seja um instrumento para o incremento da vida dos deslocados. Ser?? feita sucinta digress??o hist??rica dos eventos relevantes para a constru????o do instituto do ref??gio e uma an??lise cr??tica da defini????o terminol??gica trazida pela Conven????o de 1951 Relativa ao Estatuto dos Refugiados, concluindo-se por sua insufici??ncia no contexto do s??culo XXI e pela necessidade de uma releitura modernizadora de seus valores. Tamb??m h?? espa??o dedicado ao princ??pio do non-refoulement, passando por sua constru????o hist??rica, aplica????o coercitiva e argumenta????o sobre seu enquadramento como jus cogens. Adiante, o escrito se debru??ar?? sobre as novas faces da migra????o e os pormenores da crise humanit??ria do in??cio do s??culo XXI, al??m de fazer an??lise econ??mica da recep????o de refugiados pelos Estados europeus e da inviabilidade de invoca????o de argumentos econ??micos e pol??ticos para a devolu????o de refugiados a locais em que seus direitos essenciais possam sofrer riscos.

O objetivo desta tese é questionar o discurso da imperatividade das normas de jus cogens no direito internacional, verificando se ele se é compatível com uma sociedade internacional de caráter horizontal, descentralizado e baseada fundamentalmente no consentimento dos Estados. Para isso, a primeira parte deste trabalho examinará se a configuração normativa do jus cogens apoia a imperatividade a ele conferida, começando pelo estudo do desenvolvimento e afirmação histórica do conceito, buscando identificar tanto suas raízes remotas quanto o conteúdo desenvolvido pela Comissão de Direito Internacional das Nações Unidas, que culminou com a positivação do jus cogens na Convenção de Viena de 1969 sobre o Direito dos Tratados. O segundo capítulo da primeira parte tentará esclarecer o conteúdo normativo do jus cogens, abordando sua fundamentação teórica e buscando identificar sua fonte, examinando características inerentes a tais normas, como a não-derrogabilidade e a possibilidade de modificação para, ainda, abordar a questão da identificação das normas de jus cogens. Na segunda parte, a aplicabilidade das normas de jus cogens no direito internacional será verificada, questionando se é possível que tais normas operem os efeitos que lhe são atribuídos. O primeiro capítulo desta parte examinará áreas do direito internacional chamadas de “consolidadas”, nas quais existe alguma regulamentação em relação às consequências das normas peremptórias, tais como o direito dos tratados e a responsabilidade internacional do Estado. Em seguida, o segundo capítulo abordará os efeitos atribuídos ao jus cogens em campos não consolidados, que não possuem de previsão legal, mas que são objeto de grande produção doutrinária e jurisprudencial, tais como a possibilidade de exercício jurisdicional em virtude de violações às normas peremptórias e de criação de uma hierarquia na ordem do direito internacional para, finalmente, tecer conclusões a respeito do tema. A pesquisa utilizou os métodos histórico e dedutivo, através de pesquisa documental. / The aim of this thesis is to question the imperativeness discourse of jus cogens norms in international law, verifying if it is compatible with an international society of horizontal and decentralized character, which is primarily based on the consent of states. For this purpose, the first part of this paper will examine whether the normative configuration of jus cogens supports the imperativeness attributed to such norms, beginning with the study of the historical development and affirmation of the concept, seeking to identify both its remote roots as well as the content developed by the International Law Commission of the United Nations, which culminated with the provision on jus cogens in the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties. The second chapter of the first part attempts to clarify the normative content of jus cogens, approaching its theoretical foundation and seeking to identify its source, examining the characteristics inherent to these norms, such as non-derogation and the possibility of modification, also addressing the issue of identification of jus cogens norms. In the second part, the applicability of jus cogens norms in international law will be verified, questioning whether it is possible for these norms to operate the effects attributed to them. The first chapter of this part will examine the "consolidated" areas, in which there is some kind of regulation regarding the consequences of peremptory norms, v.g. the law of treaties and the international responsibility of the state. Then, the second chapter will address the effects attributed to jus cogens in the so-called unconsolidated fields, which lack legal provision, but which are the subject of great doctrinal and jurisprudential production, such as the possible exercise of jurisdiction due to violations of peremptory norms, as well as the creation of a hierarchy in the international law order, to finally draw conclusions on the subject. The research used historical and deductive methods, through documentary research.

Le droit international classique volontaire basé sur la notion absolue de la souveraineté étatique est remis en cause par l’émergence des règles impératives (jus cogens). A cet égard, la cristallisation des droits humains impératifs est le résultat du processus d’humanisation du droit international moderne où les règles impératives des droits humains de rangs supérieurs se situent au sommet. On peut estimer que l’acceptation des droits humains impératifs créée des obligations erga omnes de protection pour les États membres de la communauté internationale. Dans ce cadre, dans le cas de violations des droits humains impératifs, tous les États sont directement affectés, touchés et lésés par les violations en question et ont le droit d’agir. A cet effet, il nous semble que tous les États peuvent adopter des contre-mesures individuelles à l’encontre de l’État fautif, violateur des droits humains impératifs. Dans le cas de violations des droits humains impératifs, il nous paraît aussi que, sous certaines conditions, les États peuvent recourir à une intervention militaire à but humanitaire, même sans l’avis favorable du Conseil de sécurité des Nations Unies. Aussi, selon certaines conditions, les États peuvent fournir une aide humanitaire aux victimes des violations des droits humains impératifs survenues à l’extérieur de leur territoire, même sans le consentement de l’État territorial. Les États sont aussi tenus de réprimer les crimes de jus cogens commis à l’extérieur de leur territoire. Dans ce contexte, il nous semble que les États en appliquant la règle aut dedere aut judicare, peuvent poursuivre les étrangers suspectés d’avoir commis des crimes de jus cogens. Dans ce cadre, les États doivent appliquer la règle aut dedere aut judicare en respectant l’obligation de non refoulement afin de prévenir les violations des droits humains impératifs à l’étranger. Il nous paraît aussi que les États en appliquant la règle aut dedere aut judicare, doivent prévoir la compétence universelle des juridictions internes. A cet égard, les États peuvent exercer la compétence universelle à l’encontre des crimes de jus cogens commis à l’étranger par l’étranger et sur l’étranger. Dans ce cadre, il nous semble que les États peuvent exercer la compétence universelle absolue. A cet effet, un État peut déclencher une poursuite pénale à l’encontre de l’étranger suspecté d’avoir commis des crimes de jus cogens, même si ce dernier n’est pas présent et/ou en détention sur le territoire de l’État du for. Il nous semble aussi que, l’immunité des hauts représentants d’État, ainsi que les lois d’amnistie étrangères, ne peuvent pas empêcher l’État du for d’exercer la compétence universelle afin de protéger les intérêts généraux de la communauté internationale dans son ensemble. / Traditional international law based on absolute notion of state sovereignty, is challenged by theemergence of peremptory norms Çus cogens). In this respect, the crystallization of peremptory humanrights norms is the result of the process of humanization of modern international law where theperemptory human rights norms of superior ranks place at the summit. We could believe that theacceptance of peremptory human rights norms creates erga omnes obligations of protection for States,members of the international community. In this context, in the case of violations of peremptoryhuman rights norms, all States are directly affected and injured by the violations in question and have the right to react. To this end, we believe that all States can adopt individual countermeasures against the wrongdoer state, violator of peremptory human rights norms. In the case of violations ofperemptory human rights norms, under certain conditions, States may resort to military interventionfor humanitarian purposes, even without the autholization of the United Nations Security Council.Also, under certain conditions, States can provide humanitarian aid to victims of violations ofperemptory human rights norms occurred outside their territory, even without the consent of theterritorial state. States are also required to suppress jus cogens crimes committed outside their territory. In this context, we believe that States can apply the principle of aut dedere aut judicare and prosecute aliens suspected of jus cogens crimes. In this context, States that apply the principle of aut dedere aut judicare, must respect the obligation of non-refoulement to prevent violations of peremptory human rights norms abroad. It seems to us that States that apply the principle of aut dedere aut judicare must also apply the principle of universal jurisdiction before their internal courts. In this regard, States can exercise universal jurisdiction againsl jus cogens crimes committed abroad, by foreigners and against foreigners. In this context, we believe that States may exercise the absolute universal jurisdiction. To this end, a State may initiate criminal proceedings against alien suspected of jus cogens crimes, even if helshe is not present and/or in custody in the territory ofthe forum State. It also seems to us that the immunity of senior state representatives and foreign amnesty laws, cannot prevent the forum State to exercise universal jurisdiction in order to protect the general interests of the international community as a whole.

La microfiltration est largement utilisée pour la clarification, la stabilisation et la concentration de nombreuses suspensions à base de fruits (jus de fruits, agro-déchets, vin, etc.). Malgré ses divers avantages, la microfiltration présente néanmoins un inconvénient majeur qui est le phénomène de colmatage qui s’installe pendant l’opération de filtration et entraîne une diminution de la perméabilité membranaire. Si de nombreux mécanismes de colmatage (adsorption, blocage de pores, etc.) sont observés pendant la filtration de suspensions polydisperses comme les jus de fruits ou certains coproduits liquides, le dépôt de particules sur la membrane est souvent supposé être le mécanisme limitant. La formation de ce dépôt est fortement dépendante de l’équilibre entre forces convectives (imposées par le flux de perméat), qui attirent les particules de la suspension à proximité de la membrane, et forces de rétrotransport, qui éloignent les particules de la surface membranaire. La stratégie la plus employée pour maitriser le colmatage membranaire par dépôt est la filtration tangentielle qui permet d’imposer de forts cisaillements à la surface membranaire qui favorisent les mécanismes de rétrotransport des particules. Si cette stratégie de maîtrise du colmatage est amplement utilisée à l’échelle industrielle pour la microfiltration des suspensions à base de fruits, elle nécessite des coûts d’investissement et de fonctionnement non négligeables qui limitent son implantation aux industries présentant de fortes capacités de production et d’investissement. Au regard de cela, l’utilisation d’une configuration de filtration à membranes immergées pour la microfiltration de suspensions à base de fruits pourrait être une alternative intéressante. Cette configuration repose sur l’immersion de la membrane (modules plans ou fibres creuses) dans la suspension à filtrer, et est associée à un mode de filtration externe-interne, frontal ou quasi-frontale. Si l’absence de conditions hydrodynamiques intenses au voisinage de la membrane est associée à des flux relativement bas, les nombreux avantages de ce mode opératoire (coûts de fonctionnement réduits, simplicité opérationnelle, forte compacité, etc.) pourraient favoriser son emploi par les petits producteurs de jus de fruits et/ou les industries de valorisation des coproduits présentant des capacités limitées d’investissement et enclins à minimiser leurs couts opérationnels. Ce travail a ainsi étudié pour la première fois la possibilité d’utiliser un tel système pour la microfiltration de suspensions à base de fruits variées (jus de fruits et coproduits vinicoles). Ce travail de thèse a ciblé ainsi plusieurs objectifs : (i) caractériser le potentiel et le comportement colmatant de suspensions à base de fruits, en lien avec les caractéristiques physicochimiques propres à chaque suspension et au regard de leur filtration par membranes immergées, (ii) étudier des performances d’un système de microfiltration de suspensions à base de fruits par membranes immergées, performances en termes de productivité et de sélectivité et enfin (iii) dégager des pistes de réflexion qui conduiraient à une choix pertinent de conditions de filtration (mode immergé ou tangentiel) pour un type de suspension ciblé. Ce travail fournit ainsi des résultats d’identification de paramètres physico-chimiques clefs qui pourraient constituer un premier guide pour le choix de la configuration membranaire la plus adaptée au produit, permettant d’assurer une productivité acceptable lors de la microfiltration de suspensions à base de fruits. / Microfiltration is widely used to ensure clarification, stabilization, and concentration of various fruit-based suspensions (e.g. fruit juices, food by-products, wine). However, the performances of membrane filtration remain highly challenged by membrane fouling. During microfiltration of polydisperse suspensions, such as fruit-based suspensions, membrane fouling is generally associated to the deposition of particles on the membrane layer. This type of fouling is mainly governed by the equilibrium between convective forces (permeate flow), leading particles to flow towards the membrane, and back-transport forces, removing particles away from the membrane surface. The filtration performances depend strongly on this equilibrium, which is mostly governed by the hydrodynamic conditions of the filtration process and the particles size distribution of the suspension. In food industries, cross-flow microfiltration is generally used to limit membrane fouling. In this configuration, high cross-flow velocities are applied in order to enhance the back-transport forces limiting the deposition of foulant materials on the membrane surface. However, this working mode is well known to be highly energy consuming and might not always be relevant depending on the suspension characteristics. In the light of this, using immersed membranes configuration for the microfiltration of fruit-based suspensions might be an interesting alternative, especially for small producers with limiting investment capacity. In this configuration, widely used in other fields, the membranes are immersed in the suspension and filtration is performed in operating conditions close to that of dead-end filtration with limited back-transport forces and low operating costs. However, the performances of this filtration configuration remain little studied for the microfiltration of fruit-based suspensions. In this respect, this work investigated for the first time the possibility of using immersed membranes configuration for the microfiltration of various fruit-based suspensions (fruit juices and winery byproducts). Firstly, a characterization of the fouling potential of various suspensions during their microfiltration using immersed membranes filtration was performed in relation with their physicochemical properties (particle size distribution). Then, this work allowed highlighting the promising performances of immersed membranes configuration when used for the microfiltration of fruit-based suspensions, in terms of productivity and in terms of selectivity (clarification, concentration of bioactive compounds). Finally, it allowed drawing preliminary results about the relation between the physicochemical characteristics of a suspension and its fouling behavior while using (i) immersed membranes filtration or (ii) conventional cross-flow filtration. These results might be of great interest for the identification of relevant physicochemical parameters to predict the usefulness of using high cross-flow velocity to prevent membrane fouling during the microfiltration of fruit-based suspensions.

本論文除第一章導論外，尚分五章，其架構大致介紹如下：一.第二章為〔國內法上之強制規律及其基本理論〕本章之探討目的，主要在表明強制規律的基本意義，強制規律與任意規律的不同，強制規律維護公益及法律秩序之根本的本質﹞。第三章為〔條約法上強制規律的發展〕本章之目的乃在表明，強制規律的用語雖來自於國內法，但其在國際法上之思想淵源卻可追朔至十六七世紀的自然法學派﹞。第四章為〔條約法上強制規律的意義，內涵與本質〕許多與強制規律有關的重要問題，接在這章討論，比如，條約法公約第五十三條所謂〔國際社會全體接受並公認〕的真正意涵何在？國際法規律究為自然法或實證法？強制規律與國際法法源的關係為何？在國際社會並無一世界政府的情形下，國際法強制規律的內涵為何？四.第五章為〔與強制規律牴觸情勢之探討〕本章討論的難題亦不少，比如，條約在締結時與強制規律牴觸者無效，此等無效之性質為何？強制規律是否有回溯的效力？第三國是否有權主張與強制規律牴觸的條約無效？等問題﹞第六章為結論第六章針對整篇論文提出三項總結，第一節認為強制規律已獲得多數學者之肯定，但仍面臨了若干未決之難題，第二節強調強制規律是一項實證國際法規範，第三節勾勒出強制規律的理想，乃在協調個體與全體間利益之衝突。

The purpose of this study is to examine the utility of a just war explanation in understanding Canada’s decision to enter into the war in Afghanistan. It examines Canada’s three phases of the war under the lens of jus ad bellum. The concentration is upon jus ad bellum’s core criteria of legitimate authority, public declaration of intent, just cause, last resort, reasonable chance of success and proportionality and then applies it to the three phases. By examining Canada’s international role, paying close attention to Canada’s association with the UN, NATO and its ally status with the United State are important explanations of why Canada entered into the Afghanistan war. This analysis strives to provide a holistic comprehension by exploring the utility of an ignored body of explanation and extrapolates from this analysis the contemporary use of jus ad bellum.