A dor neuropática é uma condição debilitante causada por danos no sistema nervoso somatossensorial, como lesões dos nervos periféricos. As células do sistema imune, em particular os monócitos/macrófagos, desempenham um papel fundamental no desenvolvimento deste processo. Embora diversos estudos sugiram o envolvimento dessas células na medula espinal e gânglio da raiz dorsal (GRD) após a indução da neuropatia, a caracterização funcional e fenotípica, bem como a origem dessas células nesses órgãos, ainda não está esclarecida. Na medula espinal, estudos recentes têm demonstrado que apesar da massiva ativação e proliferação da micróglia residente, não há recrutamento de células mielóides para esse tecido após a indução da neuropatia, divergindo dos dados anteriormente descritos na literatura. Diante desses estudos controversos, iniciamos nosso trabalho demonstrando que possivelmente as células mielóides não são capazes de ultrapassar a barreira hematoencefálica e infiltrar na medula espinal após a indução da neuropatia periférica pelo modelo de SNI e assim, a ativação microglial ocorre de maneira independente do infiltrado dessas células neste tecido. No que se refere aos GRDs, trabalhos anteriores demonstram que há um aumento dos marcadores de ativação de macrófagos nesse tecido após a lesão periférica. Com isso, nós caracterizamos as subpopulações de monócitos/macrófagos presentes no GRD e identificamos, células CX3CR1+ e células CCR2+. De maneira interessante, ao isolarmos as células CX3CR1+ observamos que esse subtipo celular possa ser as principais células responsáveis pela produção dos mediadores inflamatórios no GRD após indução de SNI, enquanto as células CCR2+ parecem contribuir apenas de maneira parcial para a produção de IL-1? e TNF-? neste tecido, uma vez que a expressão desses mediadores não foi totalmente suprimida na ausência desse subtipo celular. Por fim, investigamos a origem desses subtipos de monócitos presentes no GRD. Por meio da parabiose entre animais wild type e GFP+, observamos que embora haja um pequeno aumento de células GFP+ no GRD de animais lesionados, essas células não são macrófagos. Corroborando com esses dados, ao realizarmos a parabiose de animais wild type com animais CX3CR1GFP/+CCR2RFP/+ não observamos presença de células CX3CR1 ou CCR2 no GRD após SNI. Em conjunto, nossos dados demonstram que existem duas subpopulações de monócitos no GRD, sendo uma delas residente e contribuindo de maneira efetiva para a produção dos mediadores inflamatórios locais e outra população de células CCR2+ que podem ter um papel mais relevante no sítio da lesão e assim, a exacerbação da inflamação local pode interferir indiretamente, na ativação das células presentes nos GRDs, bem como na produção dos mediadores inflamatórios no tecido, que vão contribuir para o desenvolvimento da dor neuropática. / Neuropathic pain is a debilitating disease due to severe damage to the nervous system, induced by peripheral nerve injury. The cells of the immune system, especially monocytes/macrophages, played a critical role in these process. Several projects have been suggested the role of these cells in the spinal cord and dorsal root ganglia (DRG) after neuropathic pain induction, but the functional and phenotypic characterization, as well as the source of cells, is still unclear. In the spinal cord, recent studies have shown that although massive activation and proliferation of the microglial occurred, there is no recruitment of myeloid cells to this tissue after the neuropathic pain induction, but this is contrary to previous findings in the literature. Based on this controversial studies, we first showed that myeloid cells are not able to overcome the blood-brain barrier and infiltrate in the spinal cord after the peripheral nerve injury by SNI model and thus, the microglial activation occurs independent of the infiltration of these cells in this tissue. With regard to DRGs, previous work has shown that there is an increase in the activation markers of macrophages after peripheral nerve injury.Thus, we characterized the subpopulations of monocytes/macrophages in the DRG and we identified CX3CR1+ and CCR2+ cells. Interestingly, when isolating the CX3CR1+ cells, we observed that this cell subtype may be the main cells responsible for the production of inflammatory mediators in the DRG after SNI induction, whereas CCR2+ cells appear to contribute only partially to the production of IL-1? and TNF-? in this tissue, since the expression of these mediators was not completely suppressed in the absence of this cellular subtype. Finally, we investigated the origin of these monocyte subtypes present in the DRG. Through parabiosis between wild type and GFP+ animals, we observed that although there is a small increase of GFP+ cells in the DRG of injured animals, these cells are not macrophages. Corroborating with these data, when performing the wild type parabiosis with CX3CR1GFP /+ CCR2RFP/+ animals, we did not observe the presence of CX3CR1 or CCR2 cells in the GRD after SNI. Finally, our data demonstrate that there are two subpopulations of monocytes in the DRG, one of them residing and contributing effectively to the production of local inflammatory mediators and another population of CCR2 cells that may have a more relevant role at the lesion site and thus, the exacerbation of local inflammation may indirectly interfere, in the activation of the cells present in the DRGs, as well as in the production of inflammatory mediators in the tissue, which will contribute to the development of neuropathic pain.

A miopatia dorsal cranial (MDC) acomete frangos de corte e é verificada a partir dos 33 dias de vida, quase exclusivamente nas linhas de abate e em diferentes matadourosfrigoríficos dos três estados do sul do Brasil, aonde vem causando prejuízos com condenações parciais e totais, gerando crescente preocupação, já que é um problema completamente desconhecido e faz parte de um alimento consumido em todo o mundo. O objetivo desta pesquisa foi fazer uma caracterização anatomopatológica da MDC, através da colheita e análise de dados relacionados ao problema em uma empresa avícola do sul do país. A caracterização foi realizada através de um estudo anatômico, avaliações macroscópicas e microscópicas do músculo envolvido e avaliação de outros músculos e vísceras de carcaças com lesão dorsal na busca de informações que pudessem indicar alguma etiologia conhecida. A colheita e análise de dados foi realizada em uma empresa com 0,5% ao mês de condenação por MDC. Pesquisou-se a idade de início da lesão nos frangos, a presença de possíveis problemas nutricionais e/ou miotóxicos e análise do banco de dados da condenação para alguns parâmetros zootécnicos. Pode-se verificar no estudo anatômico que na carcaça com MDC a vascularização local não estava evidente. A lesão macroscópica no músculo Anterior Latissimus Dorsi (ALD) foi 89% bilateral (de 110 carcaças avaliadas). A pele do local apresentou coloração amarelada, aumento de volume subcutâneo e ao corte, presença de fluido gelatinoso amarelo citrino e inodoro. Os músculos ALD lesionados apresentavam as superfícies inferiores e/ou superiores hemorrágicas, aumento da consistência, palidez e aderência aos músculos adjacentes e ao corte, aumento da espessura quando comparado a músculos sem alteração. Microscopicamente a lesão foi caracterizada como multifásica com presença de algumas fibras ainda viáveis, fibras em degeneração hialina, necrose flocular, outras em regeneração e extensa proliferação de tecido conjuntivo fibroso além de tecido fibro-adiposo. Tecido de granulação altamente vascularizado na periferia da lesão necrótica e envolvendo todo o músculo foi freqüentemente observado com grande quantidade de células inflamatórias mononucleares. Granulócitos foram verificados em alguns cortes do ALD macroscopicamente alterado. O ALD e demais músculos, sem lesão macroscópica, apresentaram lesões microscópicas de leves a muito intensas, sendo hialinização e necrose flocular as lesões predominantes em todos os outros músculos. Lesão microscópica foi encontrada tão cedo quanto 23 dias de vida. Nos corações, não foram encontradas alterações significativas. Nas moelas verificou-se picnose difusa nos miócitos. Os rins e as bursas de Fabricius apresentaram lesões, como severa necrose tubular e intensa depleção linfóide (>70%), respectivamente. Erros de dosagem do premix (vitamina E, selênio e ionóforos) na ração de frangos com MDC foram encontrados. Já sementes de Senna occidentalis não foram encontradas no alimento das mesmas. Machos, de linhagens pesadas, apresentando maiores médias de peso e idade ao abate apresentaram os maiores percentuais de condenação por MDC (P<0,01). Conclui-se que a MDC é multifásica, ocorrendo a partir de diferentes momentos de insulto e acomete com maior freqüência frangos pesados e de crescimento rápido. Deficiência de vitamina E e selênio ou níveis tóxicos de ionóforos podem estar contribuindo na indução desta “nova” miopatia. / “Miopatia dorsal cranial” (MDC) or dorsal cranial myopathy affects broiler chickens as early as their 33rd day of life, occurring almost exclusively on slaughter lines and in different slaughterhouses in the three southern states of Brazil where it has been causing economical losses, due to the resulting condemnation or downgrading of carcasses. It is cause for great concern as it is a completely unknown problem and chicken is an important food product consumed worldwide. The objective of this study was to conduct an anatomical and pathological characterization through the acquisition and analysis of data related to this problem in a poultry industry. This characterization was carried out through an anatomical study, histological evaluation of the damaged muscle and evaluation of other muscles and organs of carcasses presenting back injury, in the search for information that would reveal any known etiology. The data acquisition and analysis was carried out in a company with 0.5% of carcasses downgraded per month due to this disease. The age at which the lesion starts, the presence of possible nutritional and/or toxic myopathies, and the analysis of the condemnation database for some zootechnical parameters were carried out. It was found in an anatomical study that damaged muscle vascularization with MDC was not evident. Macroscopic lesions in the Anterior Latissimus Dorsi muscle (ALD) were 89% bilateral (in 110 carcasses evaluated). Skin on the lesion was yellowish, with a subcutaneous volume increase, and after cutting the skin was odorless with the presence of an edematous and gel-like yellow-citrine fluid. ALD muscle was hemorrhagic on the lower and/or upper surface, showing increased consistency and pallor and adherence to the adjacent muscles, and after cutting increased thickness was verified when compared to muscles without lesions. Microscopically the lesion was characterized as polyphasic with some viable muscle fibers, hyaline degenerated fibers, floccular necrosis, regenerating muscle fibers and extensive fibrosis and fibro-adipose tissue. Highly vascular granulation tissue at the border of the necrotic muscle was found with large amounts of inflammatory mononuclear cells. Some ALD macroscopically damaged muscle had granulocytes cells. ALD and other muscles, without macroscopic injury, showed from mild to intense microscopic lesions, fiber degeneration (hyaline) and floccular necrosis being the major lesions in the former muscles. Microscopic lesions were found as early as the 23rd day of life. There were no significant changes observed in the hearts, but there was a diffuse pyknosis of myocytes in the gizzards. The kidneys and the bursa of Fabricius had injuries such as severe tubular necrosis and severe lymphoid depletion (>70%), respectively. Errors in the mineral and vitamin dosage in the premix (vitamin E, selenium and ionophores) fed to the chickens with MDC were found. However, seeds of Senna occidentalis were not found in the feed. Males of heavy strains, having higher average weight and older age at slaughter had the highest percentage of downgrading due to MDC (P<0.01). Therefore, MDC is polyphasic and occurs at different times of insult, affecting most frequently heavy and fast-growing chickens. Deficiency of vitamin E/selenium or toxic levels of ionophores may be contributing to the induction of this recently observed type of myopathy.

La metformine, un composé antidiabétique reste de nos jours recommandée comme traitement de première intention pour le diabète de type 2. Ses mécanismes d’action en tant que composé anti-hyperglycémiant sont de plus en plus documentés. En revanche, son action anorexigène et ses cibles centrales demeurent peu étudiées. Par ailleurs, des données croissantes de la littérature semblent indiquer que l’activité physique, souvent associée aux thérapies anti-obésité et antidiabétiques, pourrait accroitre la sensibilité des réseaux neuronaux aux signaux endogènes permettant de réguler la prise alimentaire et le poids corporel. Ceci suggère que l’efficacité des thérapies induisant des modulations d’expression de ces signalisations pourrait être directement augmentée par l’activité physique. Dans le présent travail, nous avons cherché i) à explorer les effets centraux de la metformine chez la souris et ii) à déterminer si l’activité physique pouvait potentialiser les effets de la metformine. L’ensemble de mon travail de thèse, réalisée en partenariat avec la société BIOMEOSTASIS, a permis d’apporter des éléments nouveaux quant aux mécanismes impliqués dans les effets centraux de la metformine et d’identifier la nesfatine-1 comme un acteur potentiel dans les effets anorexigènes de ce composé. / Metformin, an antidiabetic compound, still remains a first-line treatment for type 2 diabetes. The mechanisms by which this compound exerts its antihyperglycemic effect are increasingly documented. However, its anorectic action and central targets remain less studied. Furthermore, increasing data in the literature suggest that physical activity, commonly associated with anti-obesity and anti-diabetic therapies, may increase neural networks’ sensitivity to endogenous signals involved in food intake and body weight control. This suggests that the efficacy of therapies inducing expression modulation of these signals may be directly enhanced by physical activity. In the present study, we sought i) to explore the central effects of metformin in mice and, ii) determine whether physical activity could potentiate the effects of metformin. All my work, in partnership with the company BIOMEOSTASIS brought new elements about mechanisms involved in the central effects of metformin and identified nesfatin-1 as a potential actor for the anorectic effects of this compound.

Le contrôle central de la balance énergétique implique un réseau neuronal fortement régulé et distribué dans l’hypothalamus et le complexe vagal dorsal (CVD). Au sein de ces structures, les neurones exprimant la pro-opiomélanocortine (POMC) jouent un rôle prépondérant pour limiter la taille des repas et augmenter les dépenses énergétiques. Ainsi l’activité de ces neurones est modulée par la leptine, une hormone qui reflète l’état de réserve énergétique. Les microARN (miARN) sont des ARN non codant de 22 à 26 nucléotides qui régulent l’expression des gènes par appariement spécifique avec des ARNm cibles. Actuellement, le rôle des miARN dans la régulation de la balance énergétique au niveau central reste à être clarifié. Dans ce contexte, nous avons développé un modèle de souris transgéniques qui présentent une perte de l’expression de l’enzyme de maturation des miARN DICER dans les cellules exprimant la POMC. Une augmentation de la sensibilité hypothalamique à la leptine a été observée chez les animaux invalidés ce qui suggère un rôle important des miARN dans le contrôle de l’activité des neurones à POMC par la leptine. Alors, nous avons entrepris d’identifier et de caractériser les miARN qui ciblent potentiellement l’ARNm de la POMC. Une fois identifié les miARN candidats par une approche in silico, l’étude des souris obèses déficientes en leptine (ob/ob) ou en son récepteur (db/db) a montré que l’expression hypothalamique de miR-383, miR-384-3p et miR-488 était augmentée. De plus, l’administration périphérique de leptine chez les souris ob/ob a restauré l’expression de ces miARN à des niveaux semblables à ceux observés chez les animaux non obèses. / The central control of energy balance involves a highly regulated neuronal network within the hypothalamus and the dorsal vagal complex (DVC). In these structures, pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) neurons are known to reduce meal size and to increase energy expenditure. Thus, leptin, a peripheral signal that relays information regarding body fat content, modulates the activity of POMC neurons. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are short non-coding RNAs of 22-26 nucleotides that post-transcriptionally interfere with target gene expression by binding to their mRNAs. To date, the role of the miRNAs in the control of energy balance remains to be clarified. In this context, we developed a transgenic mouse model with a deletion of the miRNA processing enzyme DICER specifically in POMC cells. Conditional deletion of Dicer in POMC cells leads to an increase in hypothalamic leptin sensitivity. These results suggest an important role of miRNAs in the leptin-dependent POMC neuron activity. Next, we identified and characterized the miRNAs that potentially target POMC mRNA. After the selection of miRNA of interest by in silico approach, we observed that miR-383, miR-384-3p, and miR-488 expressions were up-regulated in the hypothalamus of leptin deficient ob/ob mice. In accordance with these observations, we showed that miR-383, miR-384-3p and miR-488 were also increased in db/db mice that exhibit a non-functional leptin receptor. The intraperitoneal injection of leptin down-regulated the expression of these miRNAs of interest in the hypothalamus of ob/ob mice, thus showing the involvement of leptin in the expression of miR-383, miR-384-3p and miR-488.

A la suite d'un traumatisme nerveux les neurones périphériques ont la capacité de régénérer. La repousse est possible grâce à l'environnement permissif et les aptitudes intrinsèques des neurones périphériques à entamer un processus régénératif. Cette capacité intrinsèque se traduit par des remaniements cellulaires et moléculaires induits notamment par la modification de l'expression de nombreux gènes. Ma thèse a porté sur l'étude de l'un d'entre eux : CaMKIα (Calcium-Calmodulin-dependent kinase Iα), dont nous avons montré l'induction de l'expression dans les neurones de ganglions rachidiens dorsaux par une lésion du nerf sciatique. Cette kinase, jamais encore décrite dans le système nerveux périphérique adulte, est impliquée dans le développement neuronal au niveau central. Nous avons établi que l'expression de CaMKIα est spécifiquement induite à la suite de différents types de traumatismes mécaniques du nerf sciatique (sections, compressions chroniques ou aiguës) dans une population restreinte de neurones lésés, majoritairement myélinisés. La localisation subcellulaire de CaMKIα, à la fois dans le corps cellulaire des neurones et dans les fibres du nerf sciatique, évoque un transport axonal de la kinase vers le site de lésion. L'inhibition de la voie de signalisation de CaMKIα par traitement pharmacologique ou l'utilisation de siRNA dirigés contre CaMKIα induit in vitro une chute significative de la vitesse de pousse des neurites des neurones lésés. L'ensemble de ces résultats suggère que l'induction de CaMKIα contribue à la régénération axonale post-lésionnelle des neurones périphériques. / Peripheral neurons have the capacity to regenerate after injury. This regeneration is allowed by thefavorable environment generated by the cellular components of the system and intrinsic aptitudes ofthe peripheral neurons to enter this process. These intrinsic abilities are manifested as cellular changes and molecular alterations including transcriptional and post-transcriptional modifications. Prior to my work, our laboratory carried out transcriptomic analysis on dorsal root ganglia after nerve injury. This allowed us to highlight a set of genes induced in response to peripheral nerve lesion. My thesis focused on one of them: CaMKIα (Calcium-Calmodulin-dependent kinase Iα). This kinase, not previously described in the adult peripheral nervous system, has been shown to be involved in central nervous system neuronal development. We have shown that CaMKIα is specifically induced following different kinds of mechanical lesions of the sciatic nerve (sections and acute or chronic crush) in a restricted, predominantly myelinated, population of injured neurons. The subcellular location of CaMKIα, both in the soma and nerve fibers suggest an axonal transit of the kinase to the injury site. The inhibition of the CaMKIα signaling pathway by a pharmacological compound or RNA silencing in vitro induced a significantly decreased velocity of neurite growth in injured neurons. Taken together, these results suggest that the induction of CaMKIα contributes to the post injury axonal regeneration of peripheral neurons.

Tout d’abord, nous avons démontré l’origine périphérique de la corticostérone après l’administration d’un stress aigu. Pour cela, nous avons utilisé un modèle de souris déficient en transporteur de corticostérone : Corticosterone binding-globulin (Cbg-/-). Ensuite, nous avons déterminé si les effets rapides du stress sur le rappel mnésique dépendaient de mécanismes non-génomiques. Nous avons précisé si ces effets étaient médiés par les récepteurs aux minéralocorticoïdes (MR) ou aux glucocorticoïdes de l’hippocampe. Dans ce but dans un premier temps, nous avons injecté un complexe macromoléculaire de corticostérone (Cort-3CMO-BSA) qui ne franchit pas la membrane cellulaire pour évaluer l’implication de mécanismes membranaires. Dans un deuxième temps nous avons administré dans l’hippocampe dorsal (HD) ou ventral (HV), 15 minutes avant le stress, l’antagoniste MR (RU 28318) et l’antagoniste GR (RU 38486) et nous avons évalué les performances mnésiques à 15, 60, 105 et 120 minutes après le stress. En effet ces délais ont été choisis selon l’apparition de pics de corticostérone induit par le stress, mesurés par microdialyse, dans l’HD et l’HV.Les principaux résultats obtenus sont : i) les souris Cbg -/- ne présentent pas de déficit mnésique 15 min après l’administration d’un stress aigu, contrairement aux souris contrôles qui ont un déficit mnésique important; ii) De même, l’administration de métyrapone (un inhibiteur de synthèse de la corticostérone) prévient des effets rapides du stress sur la mémoire; iii) Nous avons démontré que les effets rapides délétères sont médiés par des récepteurs membranaires, puisque l’injection de Cort-3CMO-BSA dans l’HD produit des effets similaires au stress aigu. De plus, l’effet de l’injection du complexe Cort-3CMO-BSA n’est pas bloqué par l’injection systémique d’anisomycine (un inhibiteur de synthèse protéique) nous avons montré que les récepteurs membranaires aux glucocorticoïdes de type MR sont responsables des effets cognitifs rapides du stress et de la cort-3CMO-BSA sur le rappel mnésique ;iv) Dans l’HD, l’injection du RU 28318 bloquait les effets délétères du stress quand les performances mnésiques étaient évaluées 15 min après le stress, mais non aux délais plus longs. Au contraire, le RU 38486 prévenait les déficits mnésiques quand les performances étaient évaluées à 60 mais non à 105 min après le stress. Dans l’HV, le schéma opposé est observé puisque l’injection du RU 38486 est dénuée d’effet quand il est injecté à 60 min après le stress mais il bloque les déficits mnésiques induits 105 min après le stress. L’implication des récepteurs MR et GR et l’efficacité de leur antagoniste semble dépendant de l’évolution de la concentration de corticostérone au cours du temps dans l’HD et l’HV.Pour conclure, notre étude a mis en évidence que le stress aigu diminue le rappel mnésique hipocampo-dépendant par l’intermédiaire d’un mécanisme de “switch” impliquant les récepteurs MR puis GR de l’HD à des délais plus courts et ensuite seulement les récepteurs GR de l’HV à des délais plus long. / We first showed the peripheral origin of corticosterone after an acute stress administration (electric foot-shocks) using corticosterone binding globulin-deficient mice (Cbg -/-). Then, we intended to determine if the rapid effects of stress on memory retrieval depended on non-genomic mechanisms and in a further step to precise whether such effects are mediated by mineralocorticoid (MR) or glucocorticoid receptors (GR) in the hippocampus. To that aims, we first injected a macromolecular complex of corticosterone (Cort-3CMO-BSA) that cannot cross the cell membrane to assess the involvement of membrane mechanisms. In a second step, we injected 15 minutes before stress delivery either in the dorsal (DH) or ventral (VH) hippocampus the MR antagonist (RU 28318) and GR antagonist (RU 38486) and evaluated memory at 15, 60, 105 and 120 minutes after stress delivery. Indeed, these delays were chosen according to the occurrence of stress-induced corticosterone peaks measured by microdialysis in DH and VH.The main results obtained in this study are: i) Cbg -/- mice are not affected by stress delivery occurring 15 minutes before memory testing, in contrast wild-type control mice which exhibited an important memory retrieval deficit; ii) Similarly, the rapid effects of stress on memory could be prevented by the systemic injection of metyrapone (a corticosterone synthesis inhibitor); iii) We showed that the rapid (15min) deleterious of stress on memory are mediated by membrane receptors, since the injection of Cort-3CMO-BSA in the DH produced similar effects as stress delivery. Moreover, the effect of the Cort-3CMO-BSA complex is not blocked by systemic injection of anisomycin (a protein synthesis inhibitor); iv) In DH, the injection of RU 28318 blocked the deleterious effects of stress when testing occurred 15 min after stress but not for longer delays. In contrast, RU 38486 prevented memory retrieval impairments when performance was evaluated at 60 but not at 105 min after stress. In addition, the opposite pattern was observed in VH since RU 38486 was denied of any effects when injected at 60 min but blocked the stress-induced memory impairments at the 105 min post-stress delay. The involvement of MR and GR receptors and consequently the efficiency of their antagonists seem to depend on the time-course evolutions of stress-induced corticosterone rises within the DH and VH.In conclusion, our study evidenced that acute stress impairs hippocampus-dependent memory retrieval via a switch mechanism involving the MR then GR in DH at shorter delays and then only GR in VH at longer delay.

Le maintien de notre poids corporel résulte d'un équilibre entre les dépenses et les apports énergétiques. Cet équilibre appelé « homéostasie énergétique » implique un grand nombre de molécules. Parmi elles, la nesfatine-1, découverte en 2006, est un peptide de 82 acides aminés issu du clivage de la protéine NUCB2. L'intérêt généré par la nesfatine-1 réside dans son action anorexigène exercée indépendamment de la signalisation à la leptine. La nesfatine-1 est exprimée dans plusieurs organes tels que le tissu adipeux, l'estomac, le pancréas, ainsi que le cerveau. Dans le cerveau, son expression se limite principalement à quelques groupes neuronaux localisés dans l'hypothalamus et le complexe vagal dorsal. Au cours de ce travail, nous avons analysé la sensibilité des neurones exprimant NUCB2/nesfatine-1 aux signaux périphériques physiologiques et physiopathologiques affectant la prise alimentaire. Nous montrons que ces neurones sont sensibles à une hypoglycémie et qu'ils pourraient contribuer à la contre-régulation mise en place afin de rétablir la glycémie de base. De plus, nous montrons qu'ils sont activés en réponse à deux stimuli inflammatoires : l'administration de lipopolysaccharide et l'intoxication alimentaire avec une mycotoxine appelée déoxynivalénol. Ainsi, les neurones exprimant NUCB2/nesfatine-1 pourraient contribuer au développement de l'anorexie inflammatoire. Cette étude a constitué la première mise en évidence d'une implication de ce peptide en situation pathologique. L'ensemble de ces résultats suggère qu'en plus de son effet satiétogène, la nesfatine-1 participe à la signalisation centrale impliquée dans la glucodétection et les réponses inflammatoires. / The long term maintenance of body weight results from a balance between energy expenditure and intake. This balance, called “energy homeostasis”, involves a large number of molecules. Among these, nesfatin-1, discovered in 2006, is an 82 amino-acid peptide derived from the cleavage of the protein NUCB2. The interest generated by nesfatin-1 lies in its anorexigenic effect performed independently of leptin signalization. Nesfatin-1 is expressed in several organs such as adipose tissue, stomach, pancreas, and brain. In the brain, its expression is limited to a few neuronal groups located in the hypothalamus and dorsal vagal complex. In this work, we analyzed the sensitivity of NUCB2/nesfatin-1-expressing neurons to physiological and physiopathological peripheral signals affecting food intake. We show that these neurons are sensitive to hypoglycemia and that they could contribute to the counter-regulatory response established in order to restore the basal blood glucose level. Moreover, we show that they are activated in response to two inflammatory stimuli: lipopolysaccharide administration and food intoxication with a mycotoxin named deoxynivalenol. So, NUCB2/nesfatin-1-expressing neurons could contribute to the development of inflammatory anorexia. This study was the first evidence of an involvement of this peptide in a pathological situation. Taken together, these results suggest that in addition to its satiating effect, nesfatin-1 participates in the central signalization involved in glucodetection and inflammatory responses.

A abstinência ao etanol está associada ao transtorno de ansiedade. Várias estruturas e sistemas de neurotransmissores estão envolvidos na mediação deste efeito, entretanto, tais substratos ainda não foram completamente elucidados. Em modelos animais, estudos mostram aumento significativo da neurotransmissão nitrérgica em resposta à abstinência do consumo crônico de etanol. O Núcleo Dorsal da Rafe (NDR) é uma importante região envolvida na gênese da ansiedade e possui grande quantidade da isoforma neuronial da enzima Sintase do Óxido Nítrico (nNOS). Assim, o objetivo deste estudo foi verificar se a inibição da transmissão nitrérgica no NDR atenua os efeitos ansiogênicos induzidos pela abstinência do etanol. Com essa finalidade, ratos Wistar machos foram submetidos a tratamento crônico (21 dias) ou agudo (1 dia) com etanol 6%(v/v) seguido da suspensão abrupta do tratamento por 48hs. Após as 48hrs os animais receberam uma injeção intra-NDR de L-NAME (100nmoles/0,2µL; inibidor não seletivo da NOS) ou 7-NI (7-Nitro-Indazol; 5 nmoles/0,2µL; inibidor seletivo para nNOS) e 5 min. depois foram testados no Labirinto em Cruz Elevado (LCE). Em resumo, os dados mostraram que a abstinência de 48hs. do tratamento crônico com etanol promoveu efeitos ansiogênicos significativos, evidenciados pela redução do número de entradas e tempo gasto nos braços abertos do LCE, o qual foi atenuado pelo tratamento intra-NDR com L-NAME mas não com 7-NI, sugerindo o envolvimento do NO no NDR na ansiedade induzida pela abstinência do etanol / The ethanol withdrawal is linked to the disorder of anxiety. Several structures and neurotransmitter systems are involved in mediating this effect, however, such substrates have not yet been elucidated. In animal models, studies show significant increase in neurotransmission nitrérgica in response to abstinence from chronic consumption of ethanol. The Dorsal Raphe Nucleus (DNR) is an important region involved in the genesis of anxiety and has large amounts of the enzyme Sintase neuronial isoform of nitric oxide (nNOS). The aim of this study was to verify that the inhibition of transmission in the DNR nitrérgica attenuates the anxiogenic effects induced by ethanol withdrawal. For this purpose, male Wistar rats were subjected to chronic treatment (21 days) or acute (1 day) with 6% ethanol (v / v) followed by the abrupt suspension of treatment for 48 hours. 48hrs after the animals received an intra-DNR L-NAME (100nmoles / 0.2 L, non-selective inhibitor of NOS) or 7-NI (7-Nitro-indazol, 5 nmol / 0,2 L; selective inhibitor for nNOS ) and 5 min. then were tested in the elevated plus-maze (EPM). Data obtained showed that ethanol withdrawal elicited significant \"anxiety-like\" behaviors, as revealed by the decrease in the number of entries into and time spent onto the open arms of the EPM., which was attenuated by treatment with intra-DNR L-NAME but not with 7-NI. These findings are indicative of the involvement of the DNR \"anxiety-like\" behaviors induced by withdrawal of ethanol.

Etologicamente, os animais expressam repostas de medo frente a um predador ou a um co-especifico e a organização neural de respostas defensivas intraespecíficas são pouco conhecidas. Assim, o objetivo deste trabalho foi estudar o papel hipotalâmico na organização da defesa intraespecífica. Observamos que o núcleo pré-mamilar dorsal do hipotálamo também está ativo durante nesse tipo de defesa, porém porções distintas do mesmo. A lesão desse núcleo em ratos expostos a derrota social levou a importantes alterações comportamentais, praticamente abolindo comportamentos de defesa passiva. Notamos que regiões do hipotálamo lateral são as principais projeções aferentes do núcleo pré-mamilar dorsal e o principal alvo eferente é a coluna dorsomedial da matéria cinzenta periaquedutal. Concluímos que o hipotálamo é fundamental para a organização da defesa intraespecífica e que comportamentos defensivos inter e intra-específicos se utilizam de caminhos neurais distintos. / In nature, animals express fear responses toward a predator or a co-specific and not much is known about the neural organization of intra-specific defense. Therefore, the aim of this work was to analyze the role that the hypothalamus plays during the intra-specific defense expression. We observed that the dorsal premammilary nucleus is also mobilized during the agonistic encounter, but a different portion. Dorsal premammilary nucleus lesioned intruders led to important defense alterations, almost abolishing passive forms of defensive behavior. Notably, regions in lateral hypothalamus are particularly important for activating the dorsal premammilary nucleus and its efferent projection to the dorsomedial column of periaqueductal gray matter is the most important outcome for the defensive behavior expression. Concluding, the hypothalamus is fundamental for the neural organization of intra-specific defense and inter and intra-specific defensive behaviors are organized by distinct neural pathways.

O núcleo dorsal da rafe (NDR) é a principal fonte de projeções serotonérgicas que inervam o sistema límbico. Estudos mostram que o NDR é uma estrutura complexa, formada por distintas sub-regiões topograficamente organizadas e que apresentam diferentes propriedades neuroquímicas e funcionais. Tem sido proposto que duas vias serotonérgicas oriundas do NDR, o trato prosencefálico e o trato periventricular, modulam diferentemente a expressão de comportamentos defensivos associados aos transtornos de ansiedade generalizada e de pânico. O presente trabalho investigou se as respostas defensivas de esquiva e de fuga evocadas no modelo do labirinto em T elevado (LTE), relacionadas à ansiedade generalizada e ao pânico, respectivamente, recrutam diferentes sub-regiões do NDR. Na primeira etapa do trabalho, usando a técnica de imunoistoquímica para detecção da proteína Fos e da enzima triptofano hidroxilase, avaliamos a expressão da proteína Fos por neurônios serotonérgicos e não-serotonérgicos em diferentes sub-regiões do NDR, bem como em estruturas mesencefálicas vizinhas ao NDR, ou seja, o núcleo mediano da rafe (NMR) e substância cinzenta periaquedutal (SCP) de ratos em decorrência da expressão dos comportamento de esquiva inibitória ou fuga no LTE. Nossos resultados mostraram que os comportamentos de fuga e de esquiva evocados no LTE recrutam distintas populações neuronais do NDR, do NMR, bem como da SCP. Enquanto neurônios serotonérgicos localizados no nível médio e caudal do NDR, mais precisamente, nas sub-regiões dorsal (DRD), caudal (DRC) e interfascicular (DRI), bem como do NMR, estão envolvidos com a aquisição do comportamento de esquiva inibitória, neurônios não serotonérgicos das asas laterais do NDR/SCP ventrolateral, bem como das colunas, dorsomedial e dorsolateral da SCP participam da expressão da fuga. Na segunda parte deste trabalho, avaliamos os efeitos da administração do agonista de receptores AMPA/cainato, ácido caínico, no DRD, DRC e asas laterais do NDR sobre os comportamentos defensivos avaliados no LTE. Os resultados mostraram que a injeção de ácido caínico, tanto no DRD, quanto no DRC, facilita a aquisição da esquiva inibitória e também prejudica a expressão do comportamento de fuga. Já, a estimulação das asas laterais do NDR com ácido caínico induz a expressão do comportamento de fuga, sem alterar o comportamento de esquiva. Efeito oposto sobre o comportamento de fuga foi observado com a administração nesta região de cloreto de cobalto, um inibidor da transmissão sináptica. Nossos resultados mostraram ainda que a administração de ácido caínico nas asas laterais aumenta a distância percorrida pelos animais em uma arena circular, resultado indicativo da evocação da resposta de fuga. Por fim, avaliamos a o envolvimento da neurotransmissão mediada por receptores GABAA e por receptores CRF1 nas asas laterais do NDR, na expressão do comportamento de fuga expressa no LTE. Os resultados mostram que o bloqueio dos receptores GABAA nas asas laterais facilitou a expressão da fuga. Por outro lado a administração de antalarmina, antagonista de receptores CRF1 não alterou a expressão da resposta de fuga, porém prejudicou a aquisição da esquiva inibitória. Em conjunto, os resultados da primeira etapa indicam o envolvimento de diferentes sub-populações neuronais do NDR na expressão dos comportamentos de esquiva e fuga avaliados no LTE. Nossos resultados também apontam o envolvimento de neurônios serotonérgicos do NMR na expressão da esquiva inibitória, bem como a participação da SCP na resposta de fuga. Os resultados da segunda etapa indicam que neurônios serotonérgicos localizados no DRD e DRC possam dar origem aos tratos prosencefálico e periventricular abordados pela teoria de Deakin & Graeff (1991). Embora as asas laterais do NDR estejam marcantemente envolvidas na expressão/regulação da resposta de fuga, populações neuronais específicas dessa região também estão envolvidas na modulação do comportamento de esquiva inibitória. / The dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN) is the main source of serotonergic projections that innervate the limbic system. A wealth of evidence indicates that the DRN is a complex structure composed by topographically organized sub-regions with distinct functional and neurochemical properties. It have been proposed that two serotonergic pathways originating in the DRN, the forebrain and periventricular tracts, distinctly modulate defensive behaviors associated with generalized anxiety disorder and panic disorder. The present study addressed the hypothesis that the two defensive responses evoked by the elevated T maze (ETM), i.e. escape and inhibitory avoidance which have been related to generalized anxiety and panic disorders, respectively, would recruit different subregions of the DRN. In the first part of this work, the number of doubly-immunostained cells for Fos protein and tryptophan hydroxylase, a marker of serotonergic neurons, was assessed within the rat DRN, median raphe nucleus (MRN) and PAG following inhibitory avoidance and escape performance in the ETM. Our results showed that these two defensive responses recruited distinct neuronal populations within the DRN, MRN and PAG. While serotonergic neurons located at the middle and caudal level of the DRN, specifically within the sub-regions dorsal (DRD), caudal (DRC) and interfascicular (DRI), and the MRN are implicated in the acquistion of inhibitory avoidance, nonserotonergic neurons in lateral wings (lwDR) of the DRN /ventrolateralPAG and the dorsal columns of PAG are implicated in the escape expression. In the second part of this study, we evaluated the effects caused by the administration of AMPA/kainate receptor agonist, kainic acid, into the DRD, DRC and lwDR of rats tested in the ETM. The results showed that injection of kainic acid into DRD and DRC facilitated inhibitory avoidance acquisition and impaired escape expression. On the other hand, stimulation of the lwDR by kainic acid facilitated escape expression, without interfering with inhibitory avoidance acquisition. Opposite effect on escape behavior was observed in this region followed injection of cobalt chloride, a synaptic transmission inhibitor. Our results also showed that administration of higher doses of kainic acid into the lwDR promptly evoked a vigorous escape reaction in animals tested in a circular arena. Finally, we evaluated the involvement of GABAA and CRF1 receptor-mediated neurotransmission in the lwDR in the regulation of the escape behavior measured by the ETM. Our results showed that the GABAA receptor antagonist bicuculine injected into the lwDR favored escape expression, without affecting inhibitory avoidance acquisition. On the other hand, local microinjection of the CRF1 receptor antagonist antalarmin impaired the acquisition of inhibitory avoidance, without changing escape expression. Together, our immunohistochemical results indicate the involvement of distinct DRN neuronal subpopulations in the regulation of escape and inhibitory avoidance responses. Our results also suggested that, while serotonergic neurons within the DRD, DRC, DRI and MRN are involved in inhibitory avoidance acquisition, non-serotonergic neurons of the vlPAG, dlPAG and dmPAG are involved in escape expression. The behavioral results with kainic acid indicated that the DRC and DRD may be the origin of the forebrain and periventricular tracts addressed by Deakin & Graeffs theory (1991). Although the lwDR are markedly implicated in escape regulation, specific neuronal populations within this region may also modulate inhibitory avoidance behavior.