Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Master of Technology Degree: Environmental Health, Durban University of Technology, 2012. / Waterborne diseases represent substantial global burden of disease and children under the age of five are more susceptible to these diseases compared to adults. The aim of this study was to determine the microbiological quality of Nyabarongo River water used for domestic purposes, women’s knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) on water usage and waterborne diseases and its link to the diarrhoea outbreaks experienced in two rural communities: Rusheshe and Ayabaraya of Masaka in Rwanda. A total of 35water samples were collected from Nyabarongo River and from study households which used slow sand filtration (SSF) or Sûr’Eau as treatment methods and analyzed for total coliform and faecal coliform indicators. For household samples turbidity was also analyzed. Retrospective records from Masaka Health Centre were reviewed to determine the prevalence of waterborne diseases from the study areas during 2010. Further, a structured questionnaire was administered to 324 women residents of the study areas to elicit information on their KAP on water handling and waterborne diseases. SPSS Predictive Analytic Software (PASW) Statistics version 18.0 (IBM, Somers, NY) and STATA Release (Version 11.0, College Station, Texas USA) were used for data analysis. Results showed that the mean values of total and faecal coliforms of river and household water samples were above the WHO and Rwandan recommended guidelines. The mean values of total coliform and faecal coliform were significantly lower (p ≤ 0.05) in both filtered and Sûr’Eau treated water than in river water. No statistical differences of means were observed for both total coliform and faecal coliform counts between samples taken from filtered and Sûr’Eau treated water containers (p=0.80 (TC) and p = 0.56 (FC). However, turbidity values were significantly lower in filtered water using SSF than in Sûr’Eau treated water samples (p =0.002). Out of 2814 records form Masaka Health Centre during 2010, 160 cases were identified as having diarrhoeal diseases. Furthermore, respondents who used Nyabarongo River as source of water were more likely to have symptoms of diarrhoea (OR =5.35; CI: 2.12 - 14.46; p <0.05). The frequency of diarrhoea were significantly higher among people who did not wash hands before food preparation (p = 002) and after using a toilet (p = 0.007) than among those who did. There was a statistically significant association of level of education levels and drinking water treatment practices at the household level (p < 0.05). Respondents with primary school education only and those with high school education were more likely to wash their hands after using a toilet (OR= 5.24, CI 1.42-19.38, p =0.01 and OR = 7.15, CI = 1.79 -28.62, p=0.01, respectively) than those who did not attend school. No significant associations were identified between educational levels and washing hands before food preparation. The findings of this study points to the facts that water sourced from Nyabarongo River is unsafe for human consumption even after prescribed treatment, such as the use of SSF and Sûr’Eau, and could increase the prevalence of waterborne diseases and therefore calls for urgent provision of potable water. Women in the study areas had limited knowledge regarding water storage practices for prevention of household water contamination and this; underscore the need for more water handling practices and hygiene education in rural communities. / Durban University of Technology.

Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Master of Technology: Environmental Health, Durban University of Technology, 2014. / The study entailed the determination of key water quality parameters significantly influencing treatment cost in uMngeni Basin. Chemical dosage was used as a substitute for treatment cost as the study indicated that cost, in its monetary value, is influenced by market forces, demand and supply, which are both not directly linked to water quality. Chemical dosage is however, determined by the quality of water and thus provides a clear illustration of the effect of pollution on treatment cost. Three specific objectives were set in an effort to determine key water quality parameters influencing treatment costs in uMngeni Basin. The fourth objective was to develop a model for predicting chemical dosages. The first approach was analysis of temporal and spatial variability of water quality in relation to chemical dosage during production of potable water. The trends were explained in relation to river health status. For this purpose, time-series, box-plot, and the Seasonal-Kendal test were employed. The results showed that the quality of water significantly deteriorated from upstream to downstream in relation to algae, turbidity and Escherichia coli (E. coli). High mean range of E. coli (126-1319 colony count/100mL) and turbidity (2.7-38.7 NTU) observed indicate that the quality of water along the basin is not fit for human consumption as these parameters exceeded the target range stipulated in South Africa’s guidelines for domestic use. For water intended for drinking purpose, turbidity should be below 5 NTU, while zero E. coli count is expect in 100 mL. Among the six sampling stations considered along the uMngeni Basin, three dam outflows (Midmar, Nagle and Inanda) showed an improved quality compared with their respective inflow stations. This was expected and could be attributed to the retention and dilution effects. These natural processes help by providing a self-purification process, which ultimately reduces the treatment cost. While considering the importance of disseminating water quality information to the general public and non-technical stakeholders, the second objective of the study was to develop two water quality indices. These were; (1) Treatability Water Quality Index and (2) River Health Water Quality Index. The Treatability Water Quality Index was developed based on the Canadian Council Minister of Environment Water Quality Index (CCME-WQI). The technique is used to determine fitness of water against a set of assigned water quality resource objectives (guidelines). The calculated Harmonised Water Quality Resource Objectives (HWQRO) were used to compare the qualities of the raw water being abstracted at Nagle and Inanda Dam for the purpose of treatment. The results showed that Nagle Dam, which supplies Durban Heights, is significantly affected by E. coli (42% non-compliance), turbidity (20% non-compliance) and nitrate (18% non-compliance) levels. Wiggins Water Treatment Plant which abstracts from Inanda Dam has a problem of high algae (mean 4499 cell/mL), conductivity (mean 26.21 mS/m) and alkalinity (mean 62.66 mg/L) levels. The River Health Water Quality Index (RHWQI) was developed using the Weighted Geometric Mean (WQM) method. Eight parameters, namely, E. coli, dissolved oxygen, nitrate, ammonia, turbidity, alkalinity, electrical conductivity and pH were selected for indexing. Rating curves were drawn based on the target ranges as stipulated in South Africa’s guidelines for freshwater ecosystems. Five classes were used to describe the overall river health status. The results showed that the water is still acceptable for survival of freshwater animals. A comparison of the RHWQI scores (out of 100) depicted that dam inflow station (MDI(61.6), NDI(74.6) and IDI(63.8)) showed a relatively deteriorated quality as compared with their outflows (MDO(77.8), NDO(74.4) and IDO(80)). The third objective was to employ statistical analysis to determine key water quality parameters influencing chemical dosage at Durban Heights and Wiggins Water Treatment Plants. For each of the two treatment plants, treated water quality data-sets were analysed together with their respective raw water data-set. The rationale was to determine parameters showing concentration change due to treatment. The t-test was used to determine the significance of concentration change on each of the 23 parameters considered. Thereafter, the correlations between water quality parameters and the three chemicals used during treatment (polymer, chlorine and lime) were analysed. The results showed that the concentrations of physical parameters namely, algae, turbidity and total organic carbon at both treatment showed a significant statistical (p<0.05) reduction in concentration (R/Ro<0.95). This results implies that such parameters were key drivers for chemical dosage. From the results of the first three objectives, it is recommended that implementing measures to control physical parameter pollution sources, specifically sewage discharges and rainfall run-off from agricultural lands along the uMngeni Basin should assist in reducing the chemical dosage and ultimately cost. The fourth objective was to develop chemical dosage models for prediction purposes. This was achieved by employing a polynomial non-linear regression function on the XLStat 2014 program. The resultant models showed prediction power (R2) ranging from 0.18 (18%) up to 0.75 (75%). However, the study recommends a comparative study of the developed models with other modelling techniques.

Thesis (MBA)--Stellenbosch University, 2004. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: South Africa’s efforts to ensure safe drinking-water provision to all have resulted in an admirable reduction in the backlog in drinking-water provision since 1994. However, in the non-metro areas of South Africa poor drinking-water quality is common and, combined with inadequate sanitation, results in a significant and deleterious primary health impact. Given the South African government’s commitment to co-operative government and good governance, and a willingness to both mobilize government funds and to involve the private sector in addressing poor water services delivery by local government, it can be expected that a significant opportunity exists for a “service/product” combination that assists local, provincial and national government in both, (i), the progressive realization of suitable drinking-water quality via a consultative audit, and (ii), an environmental governance function to ensure that acute and chronic issues are timeously identified and resolved. Drinking-Water Quality Management (DWQM) procedures developed and operated by the government research organization, CSIR, have been shown to be effective in achieving (i) and (ii) above. However, CSIR is not the appropriate business environment from which to roll out a commercialized service. This study assesses the prospects of a start-up Small, Medium and Micro Enterprise (SMME) to access and develop the DWQM market in South Africa. A thorough review of the role of governance in the delivery of water services in South Africa is provided, and it is confirmed that DWQM procedures can be expected to contribute towards improvement in drinking-water quality in non-metro South Africa and satisfy government’s requirement of demonstrated good governance (co-operative and regulatory governance) and co-operative government. A situational analysis of the internal (CSIR) and external business environment confirms that a win-win opportunity exists for entrepreneurs from within CSIR to “spin-out” the DWQM services, and thereby fulfill CSIR’s mandate of supporting SMME’s and Black Economic Empowerment (BEE). A summary of considerations for a start-up SMME in South Africa emphasizes the importance of some key factors. A key factor for a SMME selling services to government is the satisfaction of BEE requirements. Additional key factors include the business marketing factors of customer relationship management, delivering value and ongoing evolvement of marketing strategy. A case study involving Stellenbosch Municipality is used to demonstrate the customer centric nature of DWQM, and the positive Value Impact delivered to the client. The above are used to critically consider a Business Action Plan (which has a focus on the first year of operation) and to identify amendments required for the future and separate preparation of a full Business Plan. The short term focused Business Action Plan (BAP) confirms that market forces and opportunities combine with the skills and the background of the start-up team to provide a positive prospect for the startup SMME. Conversion of the BAP to a fully fledged Business Plan will require the development of a full business strategy, and supportive marketing strategy, as the short term focus strategies are inadequate. Importantly, adjustments to the black equity holding should be brought in line with the requirements of the Broad-Based BEE Act. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Suid-Afrika se deurlopende pogings om veilige drinkwater te verskaf het gesorg vir ‘n benydenswaardige vermindering in die agterstand in verskaffing van drinkwater sedert 1994. In die nie-metropolitaanse areas van Suid-Afrika is swak drinkwater gehalte egter steeds algemeen en is verantwoordelik, saam met ontoereikende sanitêre infrastruktuur, vir beduidende en dodelike primêre gesondheidsrisikos. Die Suid-Afrikaanse regering is toegewyd tot samewerking met die private sektor en die toepassing van goeie besigheidsbeginsels. Dit is ook gewillig om regeringsfondse beskikbaar te stel indien die betrokkenheid van die privaat sektor kan help om swak waterdienste lewering deur die regering aan te spreek. Daar kan dus verwag word dat ‘n daadwerklike geleentheid bestaan om ‘n “diens/produk” kombinasie daar te stel wat plaaslike, provinsiale en nasionale regering sal bystaan in beide die: (i), progressiewe verwesenliking van geskikte gehalte drinkwater deur middel van ‘n konsultatiewe oudit, en (ii), ‘n omgewings oorsig funksie om te verseker dat akute en kroniese probleme tydig geidentifiseer en opgelos word. Drinkwater Gehalte Bestuur (DWGB) prosedures ontwikkel en toegepas deur die regeringsnavorsingseenheid, die WNNR, is bewys as effektief in die bereiking van (i) en (ii) soos hierbo gemeld. Die WNNR is egter nie ‘n geskikte besigheids-omgewing vir die wyer kommersiële toepassing en verskaffing van sodanige dienste nie. Hierdie studie evalueer die vooruitsigte van Klein, Medium en Mikro Ondernemings (SMME) om die DWGB mark in Suid-Afrika te betree en te ontwikkel. ‘n Deeglike oorsig van die rol van etiese bestuur in die verskaffing van waterdienste in Suid-Afrika word gedoen. Daar word bevestig dat DWGB prosedures na verwagting sal bydra tot die verbetering van drinkwater gehalte in die nie-metropolitaanse Suid-Afrika, maar ook sal voldoen aan die regering se vereistes van daadwerklike en sigbare etiese bestuur (samewerkings en regulatoriese etiese bestuur) en samewerking van die regering en derde partye. ‘n Omgewingsondersoek van die interne (WNNR) en eksterne sake omgewing bevestig dat ‘n wen-wen geleentheid bestaan vir entrepreneurs binne die WNNR om DWGB dienste af te stig, en sodoende ook vir die WNNR om sy mandaat te vervul, by name die ondersteuning van SMME’s en Swart Ekonomiese Bemagtiging (SEB). ‘n Opsomming van die saaklike kwessies vir die stigting van ‘n SMME in Suid-Afrika lei tot die identifisering van ‘n aantal sleutel suksesfaktore se belangrikheid. ‘n Sleutel suksesfaktor vir ‘n SMME, wat dienste aan die regering verkoop, is die voldoening aan SEB vereistes. Verdere sleutel suksesfaktore sluit in die sake bemarkingsfaktor van kliënte verhoudingsbestuur, die lewering van waarde en die volgehoue evolusie van bemarkingstrategie. ‘n Gevallestudie waarin Stellenbosch Munisipaliteit betrokke was word gebruik om die kliënt-gesentreerde toepassing van DWGB te demonstreer, en die positiewe waarde wat aan die kliënt gelewer is, word uitgelig. Laastens word die bogenoemde gebruik om ‘n kritiese evaluering te doen van ‘n Besigheids Aksie Plan (met ‘n fokus op die eerste jaar se bedrywighede). Veranderinge wat vereis sou word vir die voorbereiding van ‘n toekomstige en afsonderlike volledige Besigheids Plan word geidentifiseer. Die korttermyn gefokusde Besigheids Aksie Plan (BAP) bevestig dat marktendense en geleenthede tesame met die vaardighede en agtergrond van die Kleinsake-span ‘n positiewe verwagting skep vir die voornemende kleinsake-bedryf. Die omskakeling van die BAP na ‘n volledige Besigheids Plan vereis ‘n volle Sakestrategie en ‘n ondersteunende Bemarkingsplan, aangesien die korttermyn gefokusde strategieë ontoereikend is. Verdere aanpassings tot die swart aandeelhouding moet gedoen word om te voldoen aan die vereistes van die breëbasis SEB-wetgewing.

<p>Public-private partnerships to provide services are a relatively new policy initiative in Mexico, and have shown contrasting results. This research has endeavored to analyze the possible determinants behind the failure, or the success, of the choice of a specific mode of service provision. By using contracting literature based on transaction costs, and looking specifically at the case of AGSAL, a joint venture established between Saltillo, a northern Mexican city, and INTERAGBAR, a private investor, for the provision of water, this study showed that characteristics of the transaction at stake. More specifically, it showed that specificity of the investments that support a given transaction, the unanticipated changes in circumstances surrounding an exchange, either from physical assets or its ownership rights, and the frequency and duration with which parties engage in the transaction.</p>

Water, and particularly clean water is essential for humans with a profound effect on health and has the capacity to reduce illnesses. Paradoxical, water is a medium where disease causing agents could be transmitted into the human body. Water can cause illness both from distribution of pathogenic organisms into the human system and also if not consumed in a required amount, leading to dehydration and other complications. Today catastrophes and disasters hit different areas in various forms. When such an event occurs, infrastructure is often disturbed or destroyed, and the supply of fresh water may be threatened. The Swedish Civil Contingencies Agency (MSB) is a government agency in Sweden, with a task to developing the community’ssocietal ability to prevent and handle emergencies, accidents and crises. The agency support various actors when a crisis or an accident occurs, both abroad and at a national level. The personnelal supporting at a crisis zone is sometimes working under extreme conditions where basic needs, such as access to food and fresh water can be a deficiency. To ensure that the personnel working at these sites can continue to solve problems without risking their own health caused by dehydration or other waterborne diseases, different methods can be used to treat water for personal use. Five different products intended for personal water treatment are chlorine dioxide pills, chlorine dioxide liquid, the Katadyn filter bottle, the Lifesaver filter bottle and the UV-lamp SteriPEN. These products use different water treatment techniques to purify water and secure the access to fresh water during exposed conditions. The aim with this study is to create an information basis in order for MSB to choose water treatment product for their future international missions. This is done by examine four parameters of these different products; purification capacity, manageability, environmental impact and economic aspects. The study showed that there is no product that pervading is best according to all parameters, they all have their pros and cons. The product that was best on average throughout the whole study is the SteriPEN but only if used during 10 or more missions. If a product should be used for only five or fewer missions, the chlorine dioxide liquid is recommended to use. At sites where the raw water is heavily contaminated a combination of two products could be an option, as a result of this thesis it is recommended to combine the chlorine dioxide liquid and the SteriPEN. This study is done qualitative and the result is based on literature, laboratorial reports and own measurements and calculations. Actual field tests are needed to further evaluate the products. The importance is that the product functions practically during MSBs working conditions, so relief workers really applicate the product to purify water and not refrain because it is not compatible with the working situations. If the product isn’t used because of these reasons it shouldn’t be used because it puts the relief workers at health risks. / Vatten, och i synnerhet rent vatten är livsavgörande för människor och har en grundlig hälsoeffekt med en förmåga att reducera hälsoåkommor. Paradoxalt nog är vatten samtidigt ett transportmedium för ämnen som orsakar sjukdomar. Vatten kan orsaka sjukdom och illamående både från distributionen av patogena ämnen in i människokroppen men också om intaget av vatten inte är tillräckligt för kroppen, vilket kan leda till uttorkning med stora komplikationer. Idag drabbas vissa områden av katastrofer och olyckor i varierande form. När sådana kriser och katastrofer sker, blir ofta infrastruktur skadad eller förstörd vilket kan medföra att tillgången till rent vatten hotas. Myndigheten för Samhällsskydd och Beredskap (MSB) är en myndighet i Sverige, med uppgift att utveckla social kapacitet för att motverka och hantera nödsituationer, olyckor och kriser. Myndigheten stödjer olika aktörer när en kris eller olycka uppstår, både utomlands och på nationell nivå. Personalen som stödjer på plats i en kriszon arbetar ibland under extrema förhållanden där basala nödvändigheter, som t.ex. tillgången till mat och rent vatten kan vara en bristvara. För att säkerhetsställa att personalen som arbetar på dessa platser kan fortsätta att lösa sin uppgift utan att riskera sitt eget välbefinnande på grund av vattenbrist eller andra vattenrelaterade sjukdomar, kan olika metoder för vattenrening på personlig nivå användas. I den här studien valdes fem olika produkter avsedda för personlig vattenrening ut; klordioxid i tablettform, klordioxid i vätskeform, Katadynflaskan, Lifesaverflaskan och UV-lampan SteriPEN. Dessa produkter utnyttjar olika tekniker för att rena vatten och säkerhetsställa tillgången av rent vatten under utsatta situationer. Målet med den här studien är att skapa en informationsbas som underlag för MSB att använda sig av när de väljer vattenreningsmetod för kommande internationella insatser. Fem produkter utvärderats därför utifrån fyra parametrar; reningskapacitet, handhavande, miljöpåverkan och ekonomisk aspekt. Studien visade att det inte var någon enskild produkt som genomgående var bäst utifrån alla parametrar, de hade alla sina för och nackdelar. Produkten som överlag fick bäst resultat genom studien var SteriPEN men det utifrån att produkten används under tio insatser eller mer. Om en produkt endast ska användas under ett fåtal insatser är klordioxid i vätskeform att föredra. På platser där råvattnet är skarpt kontaminerat kan en kombination av två olika produkter vara aktuell, rekommenderat är att kombinera klordioxid i vätskeform med SteriPEN, draget som slutsats av resultatet av denna studie. Det här är en kvalitativ studie och resultatet grundar sig på litteratur, analysresultat från laboratorietester samt egna mätningar och beräkningar. Faktiska tester i fält är nödvändiga för att vidare utvärdera produkterna. Det viktiga är att produkten faktiskt fungerar praktiskt baserat på förhållandena MSB arbetar under så att hjälparbetare verkligen använder produkten för att rena kontaminerat vatten och inte avstår att använda produkten på grund av att den inte är kompatibel med arbetsförhållandena. Om produkten inte används på grund av den anledningen ska den inte användas i fält då den utsätter hjälparbetarnas hälsa för risk. / <p>2016-12-01</p>

The aim of this thesis is to determine the sources, controls and risk aspects of fluoride in surface water and groundwater in a region of southeastern Sweden where the fluorine-rich 1.45 Ga circular Götemar granite (5 km in diameter) crops out in the surrounding 1.8 Ga granites and quartz monzodiorites (TIB rocks). The materials of this thesis include both primary data, collected for the purpose of this thesis, and a large set of secondary data, retrieved from the Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Co., the Swedish Geological Survey and the Kalmar County Council. A characteristic feature of the area is high fluoride concentrations in all kinds of natural waters, including surface waters (such as streams) and groundwater in both the Quaternary deposits (regolith groundwater) and bedrock fractures (fracture groundwater). A number of potential sources and controls of the high fluoride concentrations were investigated, including a variety of geological, mineralogical, mineral-chemical and hydrological features and processes. For the stream waters and regolith groundwater, high fluoride concentrations were correlated with the location of the Götemar granite. This finding is explained by the discharge of fluoride-rich groundwater from fractures in the bedrock and/or the release of fluoride due to the weathering of fluorine-bearing minerals in the Quaternary deposits; however, the Quaternary deposits had considerably lower fluoride concentrations than the underlying bedrock. The high fluoride concentrations in the fresh fracture groundwater (up to 7.4 mg/L) in the TIB-rocks are proposed to be the result of long residence times and the alteration/dissolution of fluorine-bearing primary and secondary minerals along the fracture walls. In terms of risk aspects, this thesis shows that fluoride can add to the transport and inorganic complexation of aluminium in humic-rich, acidic streams. Additionally, 24 % of the children in households with private wells in Kalmar County were assessed to be at risk of excess fluoride intake based on the WHO drinking water guideline value (1.5 mg/L). However, the risk increased significantly when instead the US EPA reference dose (0.06 mg/kg-day) was used, both when all relevant exposure pathways were taken into account as well as water consumption alone. Hence, it is shown that the risk of an excess intake of fluoride is strongly dependent on the basis for evaluation.

<p>Uklanjanje amonijaka iz podzemnih voda u cilju dobijanja<br />pijaće vode predstavlja značajan problem, koji se do sada<br />re&scaron;avao primenom različitih postupaka. Poznato je da zeoliti<br />kao prirodni jonoizmenjivači i adsorbenti kvalitetno vezuju<br />amonijum jone u svoju alumosilikatnu matricu. Njihova<br />efektivnost, u različitim tehnolo&scaron;kim procesima, zavisi od<br />fizičko-hemijskih osobina, koje su usko povezane sa njihovim<br />geolo&scaron;kim nalazi&scaron;tima, kada se govori o prirodnim zeolitima.<br />Pored prirodnih zeolita u praksi se koriste i sintetički zeoliti<br />dobijeni raznim postupcima. Danas, je komercijalna primena<br />sintetičkih zeolita rasprostranjenija u odnosu na primenu<br />prirodnih, zbog čistoće kristalnih proizvoda i uniformne<br />veličina čestica. Crystal-Right&trade; (CR-100) je zeolit koji spada u<br />grupu najizdržljivijih proizvedenih minerala. Ovaj zeolit<br />podiže pH vrednost tretiranih voda, dok istvremeno smanjuje<br />tvrdoću i uklanjanja gvožđe i mangan. Ovo pode&scaron;avanje pH i<br />uklanjanje nepoželjnih mineralnih materija postiže se izvrsnim<br />osobinama ovog zeolita u pogledu filtriranja, ali i ispiranja<br />nakon primene.<br />Maksimalna količina adsorbovanog amonijaka iznosi 2,31 mg<br />(98%) i 2 mg (87%), iz model rastvora i uzorka podzemne,<br />bunarske vode, redno. Prisustvo drugih komponenti u<br />bunarskoj vodi uzrokuje promene u količini adsorbovanog<br />amonijaka na zeolitu. Najbolje uklanjanje postignuto je za<br />jone kalijuma već sa najmanjim masama upotrebljenog<br />zeolita. Nasuprot tome, joni kalcijuma i magnezijuma se pri<br />nižim vrednostima doziranja zeolita slabije uklanjaju iz<br />bunarske vode, dok sa porastom doziranja raste i efikasnost<br />uklanjanja na svim posmatranim temperaturama.<br />Izbor adsorpcione izoterme je pokazao da najbolje rezultate<br />daje Freundlich-ova adsorpcione izoterme, a rezultati<br />aproksimacije ukazuju na fizičku adsorpciju na heterogenoj<br />povr&scaron;ini. Negativne vrednosti entropije aktivacije upućuju na<br />zaključak da se radi o asocijativnoj adsorpciji amonijaka na<br />povr&scaron;inu zeolita, odnosno da postoji interakcija između<br />adsorbovanih molekula. Vrednosti entalpije aktivacije od<br />15,096 kJ/mol i 28,978 kJ/mol, za model rastvor i realan<br />sistem, redno, upućuju da se radi o endotermnom procesu,<br />&scaron;to i potvrđuju podaci o ravnotežnim koncentracijama na<br />različitim temperaturama.<br />Tokom eksperimenata izvedenih sa poluindustrijskom<br />kolonom ispunjenom zeolitom Crystal Right&trade; (tip CR-100)<br />potvrđena je efikasnost u uklanjanju zeolita iz bunarske vode.<br />Između ispitanih modela za određivanje kinetike u kolonskom uređaju najboljim se pokazao model Yoon-Nelson-a.<br />Koeficijent linearne korelacije za model Yoon-Nelson-a iznosi -<br />0,975, dok je koeficijent determinacije imao vrednosti 0,950.<br />Iako je model razvijen jednokomponentne sisteme pokazao<br />se kao zadovoljovajući iako se radi o realnom sistemu<br />podzemne bunarske vode koja sadrži brojne rastvorene<br />supstance, katjone zemnoalkalnih i alkalnih metala, huminske<br />kiseline, anjone itd. Može se primetiti da je postignuto<br />zadovoljavaće slaganje eksperimentalnih podataka o<br />vremenu probaja sloja (50%) sa Yoon-Nelson-ovim modelom,<br />eksperimentalno određeno vreme proboja sloja iznosi oko 59<br />časova, dok je modelom dobijeno vreme 62 časa. Konstanta<br />brzine Yoon-Nelson-ovog modela iznosi 0,051 1/h.</p> / <p>Removing ammonia from groundwater to obtain drinking<br />water is an important issue, which is so far solved using<br />different methods. It is known that zeolites as natural ion<br />exchangers and adsorbents that bind ammonium ions in its<br />aluminosilicate matrix. Their effectiveness in various<br />technological processes depends on the physical and<br />chemical properties, which are closely related to their<br />geological sites, when it comes to natural zeolites. In addition<br />to the natural zeolites in practice synthetic zeolites are used.<br />Today, the commercial application of synthetic zeolites is<br />widespread in relation to the use of natural, due to the purity<br />of crystal products and uniform particle size. Crystal-Right &trade;<br />(CR-100) is a zeolite among the most durable minerals<br />produced. This zeolite raises the pH of the treated water, while<br />the same time it reduces the hardness and remove iron and<br />manganese. This pH adjustment and removal of undesirable<br />mineral substances is achieved by the excellent characteristics<br />of the zeolite in terms of filtering, and rinsing after application.<br />The maximum amount of adsorbed ammonia at 2.31 mg<br />(98%) and 2 mg (87%), from the model solution and the<br />sample of groundwater, well water, respectively. The presence<br />of other components in the well water causes changes in the<br />amount of ammonia adsorbed on zeolite. Selection of<br />adsorption isotherms showed that the best results are<br />achieved by Freundlich&#39;s adsorption isotherm, and the results<br />indicate physical adsorption on heterogeneous surfaces.<br />Negative values of entropy of activation lead to the<br />conclusion that it is associative adsorption of ammonia on the<br />surface of the zeolite, or that there is an interaction between<br />the adsorbed molecules. The values of enthalpy of activation<br />of 15,096 kJ / mol and 28,978 kJ / mol, for the model solution<br />and real system, respectively, indicating that it is an<br />endothermic process, which is confirmed by data on the<br />equilibrium concentrations at different temperatures.<br />Experiments conducted with the pilot plant column filled with<br />zeolite Crystal Right &trade; (type CR-100) confirmed the<br />effectiveness in removing zeolite from well water. Among the<br />surveyed models to determine the kinetics of the column<br />device Yoon-Nelson&#39;s model has proven to be the best. The<br />linear correlation coefficient for the model Yoon-Nelson&#39;s is -<br />0.975, and the value of the coefficient of determination was 0.950. Although the model developed for one-component<br />systems it is proved to be satisfactory for ground water<br />ammonia adsorption. The agreement between experimental<br />data on the breakthrough point at 50% concentration (59<br />hours) with Yoon-Nelson&#39;s model, is good (62 hours). Constant<br />of Yoon-Nelson&#39;s model is 0.051 1 / h.</p>

M. Tech. (Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Technology), Vaal University of Technology. / A novel technology in the treatment of river water, which involves an electrochemical treatment technique to produce domestic or drinking water is being investigated using aluminium and iron electrodes in an electrochemical circuit. Coagulation and flocculation are traditional methods for the treatment of polluted water. Electrocoagulation presents a robust novel and innovative alternative in which a sacrificial metal anode treats water electrochemically. This has the major advantage of providing mainly active cations required for coagulation and flocculation, without increasing the salinity of the water. Electrocoagulation is a complex process with a multitude of mechanisms operating synergistically to remove pollutants from the water. A wide variety of opinions exist in the literature for key mechanisms. A lack of a systematic approach has resulted in a myriad of designs for electrocoagulation reactors without due consideration of the complexity of the system. A systematic, holistic approach is required to understand electrocoagulation and its controlling parameters. An electrocoagulation-flotation process has been developed for water treatment. This involved an electrolytic reactor with aluminium and/or iron electrodes. The water to be treated (river water) was subjected to coagulation, by Al(III) and Fe(II) ions dissolved from the electrodes, resulting in floes floating after being captured by hydrogen gas bubbles generated at the cathode surfaces. Apparent current efficiencies for AI and Fe dissolution as aqueous Al(III) and Fe(II) species at pH 6.5 and 7.8 were greater than unity. This was due to additional chemical reactions occurring parallel with electrochemical AI and Fe dissolution: oxygen reduction at anodes and cathodes, and hydrogen evolution at cathodes, resulting in net (i.e. oxidation plus reduction) currents at both anodes and cathodes. Investigation results illustrate the feasibility of ferrous and aluminium ion electrochemical treatment as being a successful method of water treatment. Better results were achieved under conditions of relatively high raw water alkalinity, relatively low raw water turbidity, and when high mixing energy conditions were available.

Thesis (M. Com. (Economics))--University of the Witwatersrand, Faculty of Commerce, Law and Management, School of Economic & Business Sciences, 2017 / This study establishes the causal impact of piped water access on child health in rural South Africa (2008 – 2015) through the use of a panel dataset and a quasi-experimental sample space. By employing an ordinal measure of child health as the dependent variable within ordinal probit, fixed and random effects, propensity-score matched difference-in-difference and system-GMM estimators, it is demonstrated that positive health benefits for children with access to piped water are observed if and only if the minimum level of educational attainment of the primary-caregiver is equal to or greater than 7 years. This finding of complementarity is demonstrated to be a function of an individual’s (in)capacity to evaluate water quality: people below this threshold suffer from a piped water bias, place insufficient weight on the observable characteristics of water when determining water quality and are subsequently less likely to treat piped water preceding consumption. The interactional effect estimates are statistically significant at the 5% level with the impact ranging from 1.617 to 2.008 levels. / GR2018

Cette thèse aborde le thème de l'efficacité au regard du management public, de l'écologie et de l’économie des capitaux pour comprendre les problèmes qui aujourd’hui font obstacle au développement de nombreux pays. Nombre de systèmes d’alimentation en eau potable dans leur milieu rural, ne sont pas à mesure d’apporter une réponse adéquate aux besoins réellement ressentis par les populations concernées. Elle se pose la question de savoir pourquoi tant d’investissements ont-ils donné aussi peu de résultats dans le secteur de l’eau dans les pays en développement. Elle se propose d’appliquer une nouvelle approche dans le cadre de la modélisation et de la simulation des systèmes d’approvisionnement en eau potable. Elle se propose aussi d’intégrer le même modèle au « mix » concernant l’eau et les énergies renouvelables. Il entend, enfin, réaliser une modélisation numérique pour permettre un prototypage virtuel du système proposé et d’aider à la conduite de projets de réalisation. Sans prétendre résoudre l’ensemble des problèmes associés à la gouvernance de l’eau potable en milieu rural dans des pays en développement, cette recherche fournit aux décideurs des moyens d’améliorer la performance opérationnelle des services d’eau à l’aide d’un modèle éco-efficace de conception de systèmes éco-efficaces et de coordination avec les usagers. Le nouveau modèle proposé riche de trois méta-règles débouchent au calcul d’indice ZOMBO (Iz), utilisé comme une métrique de fiabilité pour la validation et l’évaluation de la maitrise dudit modèle. Elle apporte aussi des supports de participation des populations locales à travers une démocratie traditionnelle africaine sous l’arbre à palabres / This thesis deals with the theme of efficiency in public management, ecology, and capital economics, in order to understand the problems that today hinder the development of many countries. Many drinking water systems in rural areas in developing countries are not able to provide an adequate response to the real needs felt by the concerned populations. The question arises as to why so many investments have yielded so little success in the water sector in developing countries? The research proposes to apply a new approach in the modeling and simulation of drinking water supply systems. It also intends to integrate the same model into the "mix" concerning water and renewable energies. Finally, it intends to carry out a numerical modeling to allow a virtual prototyping of the proposed system and to assist in the conduct of realization projects. Without seeking to solve all the problems associated with the governance of drinking water in rural areas in developing countries, this research provides decision-makers with the means to improve the operational performance of water services, an eco-efficient design of procurement systems, and coordination with users. The proposed new model of three metarules leads to the calculation of the ZOMBO index (Iz), used as a reliability metric for the validation and evaluation of the mastery of the model. It also provides support for the participation of local communities through a traditional African democracy approach under the Palaver tree