<p>Peter Berger's commitment to religious values is remarkable if you consider that he is also committed to the "impossible struggle" for "valuefree research concerning mankind's ultimate values." Against "heartless observers" or technocrats, Berger argues (using sociology of knowledge,) that it is impossible to divorce oneself from the Lebenswelt, the world of values. Against ideologues on the other hand, he contends that one"s engagement to personal values need not prevent one from attempting to understand the world objectively. Against technocrats and ideologues Berger holds out an approach to religion which calls for the practice of "dual-citizenship." This approach enables one to be academically credible and responsive to the political, religious and scientific concerns of our epoch.</p> <p>My thesis centers on Berger's dual-citizenship approach to religion. Guided by the task of determining whether Berger's dual-citizenship constitutes an ''impossible struggle" or a workable model for the study of religion, the first part is devoted to explaining what dual-citizenship entails. The second part tests the coherence of Berger's approach. Rather than proposing a new method for the study of religion, my thesis has the more modest aim of unpacking and testing an already established approach in the field, namaly that of Peter Berger. </p> / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

In the recent decades we have seen a continuous rise of dual citizenship; many states are now officially accepting it and many people are making use of this opportunity. In other states, however, dual citizenship is (still) forbidden and much contested. It is especially feared that ‘one cannot serve two masters’, that loyalty towards the nation state and thus national cohesion and democracy are undermined. Whereas, others see dual citizenship as vanguard of citizenship identities and practices above and across states, and as an important source for democratizing a globalizing world order. However, these fears and hopes regarding dual citizenship are usually built upon speculations. The actual consequences (here, especially in terms of loyalty issues) of such a dual status are not well understood due to lack of empirical data on this specific group. Thus, the case of immigrants with dual citizenship in Malmö, Sweden is used as an illustration to show how this issue of loyalty of dual citizens manifest itself in reality. This is done by analyzing and interpreting the data gathered on first generation immigrants with dual citizenship through survey and interviews (follow up); hence explanatory mixed methods. Based on the analysis, this paper offers empirical evidence on the loyalty of the immigrants with dual citizenship in Malmö to their country of residence (Sweden) and that of their country of descent.

Pilietybė yra nuolatinis, nepertraukiamas asmens ir valstybės teisinis ryšys. Užsieniečiams išvykus iš valstybės, jų teisinis ryšys su valstybe nutrūksta, priešingai nei piliečiams, kuriems išvykus į užsienio valstybę teisinis ryšys su pilietybės valstybe išlieka. Nustatydamas Lietuvos Respublikos pilietybės įgijimo pagrindus ir reguliuodamas pilietybės įgijimo ir netekimo tvarką, įstatymų leidėjas turi diskreciją, tačiau tai darydamas įstatymų leidėjas negali paneigti konstitucinio reikalavimo, kad Lietuvos Respublikos pilietis kartu gali būti ir kitos valstybės piliečiu tik atskirais įstatymo numatytais atvejais. Lietuvos Respublikos pilietybės įstatymai, tiek 1989 m. lapkričio 3 d., tiek 1991 m. gruodžio 5 d. paremti dvigubos pilietybės ribojimo principu, kuris nėra absoliutus. Yra numatytos dvigubos pilietybės draudimo išimtys. 1989 m. lapkričio 3 d. Lietuvos TSR pilietybės įstatyme iš pradžių nebuvo aiškaus dvigubos pilietybės draudimo įtvirtinimo, tokia nuostata buvo įvesta 1991 m. balandžio 16 d. įstatymu „Dėl Lietuvos Respublikos pilietybės įstatymo 18 straipsnio papildymo“. 1991 m. gruodžio 5 d. Lietuvos Respublikos pilietybės įstatymo 1 str. 2 d. buvo numatyta, kad Lietuvos Respublikos pilietis vienu metu negali būti kitos valstybės piliečiu, išskyrus šiame įstatyme numatytus atvejus. Tokie atvejai iš pradžių buvo du, t.y. kai pilietybė suteikiama už ypatingus nuopelnus Lietuvai bei pagal 1991 m. gruodžio 10 d. Pilietybės įstatymo redakciją - kitose valstybėse... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] / Citizenship is permanent, uninterrupted legal relation between a person and a state. If aliens leave a state, their legal relation with a state breaks off in contrast to the citizens whose legal relation with the state that granted their citizenship remains even if they go to any foreign country. While establishing the grounds for acquisition of the citizenship and regulating the procedure for acquisition and loss, a legislator has a discretion, however, by doing this a legislator may not deny the requirement of the Constitution that a citizen of the Republic of Lithuania may also be a citizen of the other state only in separate cases prescribed by the law. Laws on Citizenship of the Republic of Lithuania, both the law of 3 November 1989 and 5 of December 1991 are based on the principle of limitation of double citizenship which is not absolute. The exceptions of prohibition of double citizenship are prescribed. The prohibition of double citizenship has not been clearly established in the Law on Citizenship of Soviet Union Republic of Lithuania of 3 November 1989 at first. Such provision has been established on the 16 of April 1991 by the law “On the Amendment of Article 18 of the Law on Citizenship of the Republic of Lithuania”. Law on Citizenship of 5 December 1991 provided that the citizen of the Republic of Lithuania may not be the citizen of other state at the same time, except for the cases prescribed by this law. At first, such cases where two, i.e. when the citizenship... [to full text]

„Dviguba pilietybė Lietuvoje (viešojo diskurso analizė) 2002-2008 metais“ – tai tyrimas apie svarstybas Lietuvos Respublikos Seime ir Lietuvos bei išeivijos žiniasklaidoje dėl dvigubos pilietybės statuso pripažinimo teisiniame LR pilietybės reguliavime. Darbe analizuojamos viešojo diskurso funkcionavimo ypatybės dalyvių ir turinio aspektais. Žvelgiant į teisinio-politinio-visuomeninio lygmens veiksmus Lietuvoje ir išeivijos akcijas bei tarp šių pusių vykusią polemiką matyti, kad dvigubos pilietybės klausimas Lietuvoje keliamas trijuose pagrindiniuose kontekstuose: dviguba pilietybė kaip ryšio su lietuvių išeivija išsaugojimo priemonė; statuso pripažinimas ne lietuvių kilmės asmenims; galiausiai, dvigubų/keleriopų piliečių, gavusių LR pilietybę prezidentinės išimties tvarka, klausimas. Išanalizavus kiekybinio ir kokybinio tyrimo metu gautus duomenis pastebėta, kad diskusijose apie dvigubą pilietybę lietuvių kilmės asmenims gvildenama emigracijos problema, pabrėžiamas išeivijos indėlis į Lietuvos ekonominį, kultūrinį, visuomeninį gyvenimą, taip pat emocinio ryšio su Lietuva ir kilmės šaknų svarba. Nemažai dėmesio skiriama pilietybės instituto reikšmės kvestionavimui, piliečio ir valstybės tarpusavio įsipareigojimo (teisių ir pareigų) aspektais. Polemikoje dėl dvigubos pilietybės ne lietuvių kilmės asmenims paliečiamos restitucijos, grėsmės nacionaliniam saugumui klausimas ir diskriminacijos tautinių mažumų atžvilgiu elementas. Lietuvos patirtis suteikiant pilietybę išimties... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] / This research aims to analyse dual citizenship status in Lithuania as a concept in Parliamentary debates as well as in media throughout Lithuania and Lithuanian communities living abroad. Analysis has taken a two level direction – the main characteristics of participants and their groups in public discourse and its content examination at the same time. The changes in legal, political and social level in Lithuania in addition stimulated by Lithuanian Diaspora movements brought dual citizenship question into the discourse field in connection with three different contexts the topic is most often debated in. First of all, the development of a sending state pattern, where dual citizenship can be seen as a way to maintain links with Lithuanian Diaspora. Secondly, how it is seen in recognition of dual citizenship status for other ethnic origins residing in Lithuania and abroad. And finally, the topic can be viewed in the context of dual citizens by the rule of exception. In order to find an answer to the main objective of this research, study employs an eclectic methodological approach, comprising comparative qualitative and quantitative discourse analysis. Given results demonstrated that there is no overall tendency in the development of this field, however main topics can be recognised in each context. Such as emigration, the role of Lithuanian Diaspora and its contribution to economic, cultural, social life in Lithuania, the emotion and identity in expression of the relationship... [to full text]

Migration over national boarders is common in today’s globalized world. As a result the number of individuals with connections to more than one nation are increasing. But how do they identify themselves? Ambition of this study was to explore how individuals with dual citizenship identify themselves and whether others identification of them has an effect on their own identification. This study had a qualitative approach and used semi- structured interviews to collect experiences from five individuals with dual citizenship.   This study contains theories of identity based on social constructivism, social identity, national identity, orientation, as well as key notions such as migration, citizenship and dual citizenship. Those are the theories used in the analysis of the empirical material.   The conclusion reveals that all of the informants identify themselves with both their nations, which demonstrates their hyphen identities. Differences in identifications are presented by three identities; the first is Transnational Identity, where the individual's identification is influenced by all nations, even though there is no longer any connection with the nations. The second is Hierarchical hybrid, where the individuals identify themselves with one nation more than the other. The last identity is Parallel affiliation, where individuals identify themselves equally with both nations while experiencing emotional attachment to both. Furthermore, the conclusion shows that individuals’ identification isn´t predominantly influenced by others perception of them.

The expansion of globalization continues to increase the rate at which people move across borders, work and live in countries different from their countries of origin. To ease the migration and integration of immigrants, several countries now offer dual citizenship to their citizens and immigrants willing to naturalize in their country. This has led to a substantial increase in the number of people holding dual citizenship globally. While this has achieved the purpose of immigrant integration, there is a popular concern that it might lead to a case of divided loyalty where individuals with dual citizenship show more loyalty to one of their states than to the other. In light of this, this study explored the loyalty of citizens in Malmo, Sweden to Sweden as their host country and their respective countries of origin.   This study adopted a cross-sectional qualitative survey methodology. Eight inhabitants of Malmo, Sweden were recruited as the study participants using a snowballing sampling technique. A face-to-face interview session guided by a semi-structured interview guide was used as the data collection instrument. The loyalty of study participants was evaluated using four metrics including self-identification, social activity, economic activity and political activity involvement following the communitarianism theory of citizenship.    The socio-demographic profile of the study participants showed that four of them emigrated from Asia, three from Africa and one from Europe. Five of the study participants were male and the other three were female. Seven of them were also employed and only one was unemployed. In addition, all the participants have spent at least six years residing in Sweden.  The results of the study showed that the majority of dual citizens in Sweden prefer to identify with their home country than to identify as a Swede. Also, dual citizens in Malmo, Sweden engage in social, economic and political activities in Sweden more than they do in their home countries. The study concluded that dual citizens in Sweden are more loyal to their host country (Sweden) than they are to their host country. However, this finding mostly applies to immigrants from developing countries as they are the only ones involved in this study as study participants.

This study is about the significance of dual citizenship and the feeling of belonging people experience. Descriptions about the problems with being a citizen in a state, but not being accepted as one, is also discussed in the thesis. The juristic aspects, what it means to be possessed of dual citizenship and the consequences when the negative aspects of dual citizenship arise, is also discribed. The reasons for having dual citizenship is very analogous but at the same time different. The common denominator is however pragmatics. The informants are very well aware of the merits and demerits the dual citizenship bring about. The thesis demonstrate further that people experience a feeling of belonging to more than one state and the apprehension of identity doesn’t necessarily derive from national citizenship. The significanse of national citizenship appears to be of reducible community when people become more spacepolygamous in a globalising world.

<p>This study is about the significance of dual citizenship and the feeling of belonging people experience. Descriptions about the problems with being a citizen in a state, but not being accepted as one, is also discussed in the thesis. The juristic aspects, what it means to be possessed of dual citizenship and the consequences when the negative aspects of dual citizenship arise, is also discribed. The reasons for having dual citizenship is very analogous but at the same time different. The common denominator is however pragmatics. The informants are very well aware of the merits and demerits the dual citizenship bring about. The thesis demonstrate further that people experience a feeling of belonging to more than one state and the apprehension of identity doesn’t necessarily derive from national citizenship. The significanse of national citizenship appears to be of reducible community when people become more spacepolygamous in a globalising world.</p>

Apibendrinant pilietybę pirmiausiai yra pabrėžiamas priklausomumas valstybei, antra –asmens ir valstybės abipusis teisinis ryšys, šis ryšys turi būti nepertraukiamas ir nuolatinis. Vaikas yra asmuo, neturintis 18 metų. Teisėti vaiko atstovai yra tėvai, įtėviai, globėjai, rūpintojai ir kiti asmenys, kurie pagal įstatymą ar kitą teisės aktą privalo jam atstovauti, ginti jo teises ir teisėtus interesus. Yra du pilietybės įgijimo būdai: a) gimimo faktas ir b) natūralizacija. Valstybės suteikdamos vaikui pilietybę laikosi tam tikrų principų: nacionalinio ir teritorinio arba mišraus. Lietuvoje vaikas, kurio abu tėvai jo gimimo metu buvo LR piliečiai, yra LR pilietis, nesvarbu, ar jis gimė LR teritorijoje, ar už jos ribų. Šio straipsnio taikymo problema atsiranda tais atvejais,kai vaikas gimsta valstybėje, kuri taiko teritorinį pilietybės įgijimo principą. Daugelis problemų iškyla dėl vaikų pilietybės įgijimo kai tėvai yra skirtingų valstybių piliečiai. Pavyzdžiui, jeigu vaiko tėvai turi ne tą pačią pilietybę ir vaiko gimimo metu vienas iš jų buvo vienos šalies pilietis, tai vaiko gimusio už tos šalies ribų, tos šalies pilietybė gali būti įgyjama jeigu tėvai sutinka. Kita problema gali iškilti tuo atveju, kai abu vaiko tėvai turi skirtingą pilietybę, bet vaikas gimsta trečiojoj šalyje. Lietuvoje vaikas, kurio vienas iš tėvų vaiko gimimo metu buvo LR pilietis, o kitas buvo asmuo be pilietybės arba nežinomas, yra LR pilietis neatsižvelgiant į vaiko gimimo vietą. Analizuojant valstybių... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] / Describing the nationality firstly the dependence to the state is stressed, secondly – the legal connection between citizen and state, that should be mutual, constant and continuous. A child is a person under 18 years old. Legal representatives of the child are parents, adoptive parents, tutors, guardians and other persons who according to the law can represent the child, protect his/her rights and legal interests. There two ways to achieve the nationality: a) by birth and b) by naturalization. There are some principles that the states usually comply in the cases of the child birth: national, territorial or mixed. In Lithuania the child, who’s both parents are citizens of RoL on the time of the child birth, is citizen of RoL and it doesn’t matter if the child is born in the territory of RoL or outside. The problem arises when the child is born in the state where the land principle dominates. Lots of problems rise when the parents have different nationalities. For instance, if the parents of the child has the different nationalities and on the time of the child birth one of the parents was the citizen of that state, so the child, who was born outside the state, nationality of that state can be acquired if the parents agrees. Another problem can arise if the parents of the child have different nationality, and the child is born in the third country. In Lithuania, if the child, who’s one of he parents was citizen of RoL and the other stateless person on the time of the child... [to full text]

This research investigates why people acquire dual citizenship. It focuses on the acquisition of dual citizenship through residency, with a processual lens and under conditions of “ordinariness” to tackle aspects that are usually overlooked. It builds on the differentiated access to dual citizenship granted to Peruvian migrants by the Italian and Spanish citizenship regimes. The 79 Peruvian migrants included in the study are either prospective dual citizens or actual dual citizens. The research builds on qualitative methods ranging from participant observation to in-depth semi-structured interviews. It investigates the motivations, expectations and contingences that bring migrants to the status acquisition. The analysis distinguishes between early and postponed acquisitions to highlight how practices of convenience and everyday forms of substantive commitment can coexist under the same national umbrella. Moreover it suggests that the availability and accessibility of the dual status cannot be conflated with a supposed desirability. Although nation-states design their citizenship and immigration regimes according to normative stances that should shape their ideal citizenry, individuals qua migrants manage to forge their own way into the host community while formally abiding the law. Thus, migrants’ pathways across statuses are the result of structural constraints as much as personal preferences and deliberate positioning vis-à-vis nation-states. The study shows how people navigate the laws through both legal and semi-legal means; how they cultivate constellations of belonging that do not necessarily match formal memberships; and how they invest citizenship with multiple meanings that can converge, collide, or simply bypass the state-led rhetoric on national membership.