Depuis les travaux de Pinel à la fin du XVIIIème, l'orientation du malade mental criminel s'est faite dans la recherche d'un juste équilibre entre soin et peine, plaçant l'expertise psychiatrique pénale au centre du dispositif judiciaire. Ces dernières années, de nombreuses critiques ont émergé à l'encontre de l'expert psychiatre et de l'institution psychiatrique, tandis que de nouvelles préoccupations sécuritaires envahissaient nos sociétés. Dès lors, la tentation de criminaliser le malade mental, marqué du sceau de la dangerosité, grandit, tandis que l'article 122-1 révèle davantage l'ambiguïté de son second alinéa. Afin de mieux appréhender cette population de malades mentaux criminels, cette thèse s'articule sur deux démarches complémentaires. L'une détermine le cadre socio-historique de la recherche, l'autre est une étude descriptive rétrospective sur l'application de l'article 122-1 second alinéa. L'analyse des résultats à l'aune de cette double lecture permet de tracer plusieurs pistes de réflexions pour une réactualisation intégrative dynamique et cohérente de l'articulation santé-justice. / Since the works of Pinel, The orientation of the criminal mentally ill person was made in the search for a just balance between care and punishment, placing the penal psychiatric expertise in the center of the judicial device. These last years, numerous criticisms appeared against the expert psychiatrist and from the psychiatric institution, whereas new security concerns invaded our societies. From then on, the temptation to criminalize the mentally ill person, marked with the seal of the dangerosité, grows , whereas the article 122-1 reveals more the ambiguity of its second paragraph. To dread better this population of criminal mental patients, this thesis articulates on two additional steps. The one determines the socio-historic frame of the research, the other one is a retrospective descriptive study on the application of the article 122-1 second paragraph. The analysis of the results in the alder of this double reading allows to emit several tracks of reflections for an updating dynamic and coherent intégrative of the articulation health-justice.

Cette thèse a pour ambition d’analyser un aspect encore mal connu de la transition postsoviétique des États baltes : l’évolution d’une politique étrangère placée entre récepteurs et donneurs d’assistance étrangère au prisme de l’action de parrainage transnational. Nous observons, dans une approche constructiviste, la transformation et la redéfinition des concepts d’identité politique et de solidarité face à l’Autre et le regard que ce dernier porte sur Soi. Malgré l’évolution de cette identité, des continuités persistent : Le rapprochement opéré avec l’Europe de l’Est depuis une dizaine d’années est non seulement l’une de priorités politiques des États baltes, il s’inscrit parallèlement dans leur désir d’aspirer à devenir de « vrais » Européens et d’être perçus comme tels. Cette thèse met en lumière deux dimensions de cette solidarité : la solidarité politique d’une part, la mise en pratique de celle-ci par l’assistance technique, d’autre part. Il s’agit d’abord de comprendre les différentes logiques dans lesquelles s’inscrit la solidarité balte et d’identifier ses acteurs et réseaux. Dans une démarche interdisciplinaire qui croise notamment les mécanismes de Policy Transfer Studies et l’approche historique et comparative, cette thèse s’attache ensuite à mieux définir les processus et les modes de mise en œuvre, ainsi que le rôle des acteurs « émetteurs » (les experts) et leur interaction avec leur partenaires. Elle arrive à la conclusion que les Baltes diffusent et partagent avec les pays du voisinage oriental de l’UE principalement l’expérience qu’ils ont acquise, s’inspirant logiquement de l’action nordique de parrainage dont ils ont bénéficié au cours des années 1990. / This doctoral thesis aims to analyse one of the less known aspects of Baltic transition: the evolution of their foreign policy between receptors and donors of foreign assistance through transnational patronage (1985-2013). In line with the constructivist school of thought, we observe how the concept of political identity and solidarity changes, redefines itself towards the Other and the perception that the latter has on the Self. Notwithstanding the changes in this identity, some continuities seem to persist: The rapprochment with Eastern Europe over the past ten years could viewed as one of the priorities of the Baltic States but it also stems from the desire of these States to become and to be considered as “fully” European. This thesis sheds some light over the two dimensions of this solidarity: the political solidarity and support on the one hand, and its implementation through technical assistance to reforms and trainings of Georgian, Ukrainian and Moldovan elites, on the other hand. In order to better observe how the solidarity is expressed, this study attempts to understand the different logics of the Baltics solidarity, to identify different actors and networks involved. In an interdisciplinary approach intersecting the mechanisms of PTS and the historical and comparative approach, this study takes then focuses on the processes and methods of the implementation, the role of the actors “donors” and their interaction with their partners. It concludes that Baltic States diffuse and share with the Eastern neighbours of EU mostly their own experience inspired from the Nordic States’ patronage action towards the Baltics during the 1990.

Après des décennies de croissance rapide du droit international de l’environnement, il est aujourd’hui crucial d’assurer l’effectivité et l’efficacité de cette branche du droit. Cela implique, entre autres, de garantir la flexibilité et la réactivité des instruments existants. Cette thèse propose d’explorer les mécanismes et phénomènes permettant aux régimes internationaux environnementaux de s’adapter aux évolutions scientifiques, politiques et juridiques en s’appuyant sur un cas d’étude précis : l’influence de la Plateforme intergouvernementale politique et scientifique pour la biodiversité et les services écosystémiques (IPBES) en Méditerranée. L’IPBES a été récemment établie afin de pallier l’inefficacité des politiques environnementales en matière de biodiversité. En partant du postulat du succès de cette plateforme, cette thèse expose les divers moyens juridiques d’influences dont celle-ci dispose dans la région. Nous verrons ainsi que l’expertise institutionnelle des régimes méditerranéens constitue une modalité d’influence directe tandis que les nombreux phénomènes de diffusion normative lui assurent une influence indirecte. La Méditerranée comporte à une échelle réduite tous les enjeux du droit international de l’environnement. Une telle étude permettra donc de mettre en lumière des aspects rarement étudiés de cette branche du droit / After decades of growth, it is now crucial to ensure that International environmental law is efficient. This implies, among other things, to guarantee the flexibility and reactiveness of existing instruments. This thesis aims to develop an analysis of the different mechanisms and phenomenon that allow International environmental regimes to adapt to scientific, political and legal evolution. It does so by focusing on a specific case study: the influence of the Intergovernmental science-policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) in the Mediterranean. The IPBES was recently established in order to cope with the inefficiency of current measures for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. By assuming the success of this platform, this thesis will explore the different legal means of influence the IPBES has in the region. In doing so, we will see that the institutionalized expertise of Mediterranean regimes allows for a direct influence of the platform, while norm diffusion in the region allows for an indirect influence. The Mediterranean holds within itself all of the stakes of International environmental law. By focusing on the region, this study hopes to shine light on aspects of International environmental law that are seldom studied

Dans un contexte de contrôle accru de l’immigration irrégulière et de la gestion serrée des frontières, de quelle manière, selon quelles modalités, par quelles directives et selon quelles applications, l’enfermement des étrangers en instance d’éloignement du territoire français, participe-t-il à la préparation de cette expulsion ?Cette thèse s’intéresse à la gestion de l’enfermement des étrangers dans un centre de rétention administrative (CRA), selon deux aspects centraux, la surveillance et le soin, et elle se focalise, à travers des pratiques de police et de santé, sur le rôle de cet enfermement dans la mise en œuvre de l’expulsion. Elle s’inscrit dans les travaux d’anthropologie de l’Etat et de la police et dans ceux de la sociologie de l’immigration et des lieux d’enfermement.Elle montre comment différentes formes de directives, propres à l’enfermement des étrangers, trouvent leur incarnation dans des agents dont les pratiques sont la résultante à la fois d’applications directes de ces directives et surtout de leurs aménagements, propres à la gestion des contradictions, découlant de ce lieu.Cette thèse s’intéresse d’abord aux pratiques de police fixées autour de la surveillance qui, dans le cadre de la gestion de certaines contradictions, propres à la rétention, devient, par glissement, un travail d’attente et d’anticipation, sous des formes allant de l’expectative à la recherche d’informations jusqu’aux stratégies locales de contrainte et de conditionnement. Elle se focalise ensuite sur les pratiques de santé, en montrant combien les enjeux de l’enfermement et de l’expulsion viennent à les façonner, de manière profonde, au point qu’elles soient parties prenant d’un processus de sélection et de différenciation. Elle s’intéresse enfin, dans ce travail global de préparation, aux effets des rapports entre la police et les professionnels de santé, dans cette gestion d’une population enfermée, tenue par la menace d’une expulsion. Cette thèse restitue, en somme, différentes pratiques, différents positionnements politiques et moraux, d’agents travaillant dans un dispositif de contrôle, administré par l’Etat, confrontés dans leur travail à des contradictions et à des conflits moraux.Ce travail est le fruit d’une enquête ethnographique mené au sein d’un CRA et d’entretiens et d’observations ciblés auprès d’acteurs appartenant à des lieux dont le CRA est dépendant. / In the wings of the deportation from french territory, between surveillance and assistance : Ethnographic exploration in a French Immigration Detention CentreIn a context of increasing control of irregular immigration and the tight management of borders, in what manner, according to what terms, by which directives and which applications, does the incarceration of foreigners pending to be expulsed from French territory participate in the preparation of this expulsion? This thesis deals with the management of the confinement of foreigners in a French Immigration Detention Centre, according to two central aspects, monitoring and care, and she focuses, through the practices of police and health, on the role of this imprisonment in the implementation of expulsion. It fits in the anthropology of the State and the police work and in those of the sociology of immigration and of the places of confinement. It shows how different forms of directives, specific to the confinement of foreigners, are embodied in agents whose practices are the result both of direct applications of these guidelines and especially their facilities, specific to the management of contradictions, arising from this place. This thesis focuses first on police practices fixed around surveillance which, under the management of contradictions, proper to the retention, becomes by a shift to a job of expectation and anticipation, in forms ranging from expectantly looking for information to local strategies of constraint and conditioning. It then focuses on the practices of health, by showing how the confinement and deportation issues come to shape them, in a profound way, to the point that they are involved in the process of selection and differentiation. Finally she deals with this comprehensive preparatory work, to the effects of the relationship between the police and health professionals, in the management of an incarcerated population, held by the threat of expulsion. This thesis renders, in sum, different practices, and different political and moral positions of the agents that are working in a control system, administered by the State, that are faced in their work to contradictions and moral conflicts. This work is the fruit of an ethnographic investigation conducted within a French Immigration Detention Centre and targeted interviews and observations with actors belonging to places on which the French Immigration Detention Centre is dependent.

Dans la Normandie médiévale, à partir de la fin du XIIIe siècle, le terme de métier peut désigner une catégorie d’institutions professionnelles reconnue par les contemporains. À partir de cette époque, les modalités d’application de la réglementation économique propre à ces métiers émergent dans la documentation. Elles se caractérisent notamment par le rôle de gardes désignés avec la participation du groupe professionnel régulé. Cette évolution accompagne la deuxième révolution de l’écrit, qui accentue la mise par écrit des normes. Les statuts de métiers, qui fixent le fonctionnement d’organisations professionnelles, s’intègrent dans le développement d’une réglementation plus détaillée, dont la diffusion géographique est corrélée à la hiérarchie urbaine. Le recoupement des sources normatives avec les archives judiciaires et comptables a permis de compléter le panorama des institutions de métiers normandes, qui inclut des bourgs comme Elbeuf ou Neufchâtel-en-Bray, voire des activités rurales comme la poterie ou la métallurgie. L’analyse quantitative d’un corpus couvrant 60 ressorts juridictionnels atteste sa représentativité et suggère une diversification des institutions de métiers, au-delà des biais documentaires qui ont parfois trompé l’historiographie, notamment à propos de la conflictualité. L’amélioration des sources disponibles autorise des études de cas sur Rouen, mais aussi sur la seigneurie de Louviers, sur les baronnies d’Elbeuf et de Roncheville et sur la minière de Beaumont à Saint-Rémy-sur-Orne. Les comparaisons révèlent les limites de l’autonomie des organisations de métiers dans la sanction des règles professionnelles, malgré quelques exceptions comme les juridictions corporatives du maître des férons de Normandie ou du prévôt des tanneurs de Rouen. Cependant, l’expertise sur la qualité et sur la qualification, tout comme les procédures d’entrée en apprentissage et de maîtrise, paraissent souvent échapper aux autorités jusqu’à la fin du XIVe siècle, et le recours aux juridictions supérieures reste fluctuant au XVe siècle. L’identité des organisations de métiers se polarise autour de leurs gardes, assermentés devant les autorités, plutôt que de se cristalliser dans des communautés dont les contours restent mouvants. De ce fait, l’action collective des groupes professionnels ne se formalise que très progressivement et sort souvent du cadre des institutions de métiers, même si la consultation des communautés est une étape importante dans la genèse de la réglementation professionnelle. La formalisation des institutions de métiers relève d’un développement du droit écrit, dont les usages par des associations professionnelles ou par les autorités varient en fonction des circonstances. / In medieval Normandy, from the end of the XIIIth century, the word métier (craft) could refer to a category of profession-based institutions that were clearly identified by the contemporary society. Dating from that period, the documentation also sheds a new light on the modes of enforcement of the economic rules which are particular to these craft institutions. Among their main characteristics was the role of craft officers (gardes du métier) who were appointed in agreement with the craft group. This evolution goes with the second "writing revolution" which developed the use of written norms. In this study, craft rules are therefore defined as a type of source which sets the structures of craft organisations. The development of this type of source was only part of the expansion of more detailed professional rules, whose geographic diffusion reflects the urban hierarchy. Judicial sources and accounts completed those normative sources and broadened the spectrum of craft institutions by including small towns like Elbeuf or Neufchâtel-en-Bray, as well as rural activities like pottery or metallurgy. The quantitative analysis of sources covering over 60 jurisdictions shows their representativity and a growth that does not entirely come from documentary biases. The diversity of places and activities ruled by craft institutions grew at the end of the Middle Ages. Better sources make case studies possible not only in Rouen but also in the jurisdictions of Louviers, of Elbeuf, of Roncheville and of the mine of Beaumont at Saint-Rémy-sur-Orne. The comparisons reveal how limited the autonomy of craft organisations concerning the enforcement of rules could be, despite a few exceptions like the master of the ironworkers of Normandy or the provost of the tanners of Rouen who had jurisdiction over their peers. However, until the end of the 14th century, the authorities seemed to lack control over the expertise on the quality of goods and on qualification, as well as over the formalities required for becoming an apprentice or a master. Even in the 15th century, the superior courts did not always intervene in such cases. The identity of craft organisations revolved more around their officers, who were sworn before higher authorities, than it depended on the shifting boundaries of the working communities. As a consequence, the collective action of workers very slowly took a formal aspect and often took place outside the craft institutions. Nevertheless, craft communities were consulted as a group about their rules. The development of formal craft institutions at the end of the Middle Ages can be linked to the growing use of written laws that were claimed by professional associations or by the authorities according to the context.

O presente trabalho propõe pesquisar a relação entre processos mentais, improvisação musical e performance. Realiza essa investigação partindo da perspectiva da psicologia cognitiva das décadas de 1980 e 1990 que concebe a improvisação musical enquanto um sistema de expertise. Incorpora à pesquisa as novas abordagens fundamentadas em princípios da neurociência realizadas na primeira década do século XXI, que investigam a improvisação enquanto um comportamento criativo espontâneo e, através de experimentos com neuroimagem funcional, buscam as possíveis bases cerebrais para a criatividade. O objetivo deste estudo é apropriar-se de parte do conhecimento produzido pela psicologia cognitiva e pela neurociência acerca dos mecanismos psicológicos e neurobiológicos que geram a improvisação, a fim de sugerir possíveis interfaces entre esse conhecimento, as rotinas de estudo do músico improvisador e as estratégias pedagógicas do professor de improvisação. / This paper intends to research the relationship between mental processes, musical improvisation and performance. The investigation starts from the cognitive psychology perspective in the 1980s and 1990s, considered a system of expertise, and go forward on new approaches, based on principles of neuroscience from the first decade of this century, that understood the cognitive psychology as a creative and spontaneous behavior. Through experiments with functional neuroimaging, the study reffered here in seeks the possible cerebral basis for creativity. The aim of this study is to appropriate part of the knowledge, produced by cognitive psychology and neuroscience, about the psychological and neurobiological mechanisms that generate improvisation. The research suggests, eventually, possible interfaces between cognitive psychology and neuroscience, the routines of study for an improvising musician and the pedagogical strategies of a teacher of improvisation.

L’objectif principal de ce travail était de montrer empiriquement l’influence des contraintes culturelles sur la motricité humaine grâce à la mise en œuvre d’une expérience standardisée dans différents contextes culturels. L’exemple choisi est le tournage de poterie. Il s’agit d’une habileté artisanale ancienne qui est encore pratiquée dans différentes sociétés. En nous appuyant sur le cadre théorique de la psychologie écologique, nous avons étudié comment, à partir d’environnements culturels distincts —en France et dans deux communautés différentes en Inde— une même tâche (le tournage) est réalisée. La tâche expérimentale consistait à reproduire quatre formes dans deux masses. Deux expériences d’interversion ont également permis d’approfondir les résultats. En étudiant les stratégies d’action et le résultat final à partir des productions, on a pu mettre en évidence un ensemble de traits invariants dans les différents groupes. Ces invariants peuvent être interprétés comme une réponse aux contraintes de la tâche. Ainsi, quel que soit l’environnement culturel dans lequel le potier a appris le tournage, ce sont les principes du tournage qui ont été appris, indépendamment des conditions spécifiques d’exécution. En même temps, les résultats ont aussi montré des modulations culturelles dans la géométrie des productions et dans l’organisation temporelle de l’action. Il est possible d’interpréter ces variations comme des adaptations aux contraintes culturelles (matérielles et sociales) spécifiques à chaque groupe. En outre, nous avons observé que l’influence des contraintes sociales était aussi prégnante que celle des contraintes matérielles. Cette dernière observation nous a amené à proposer un projet de recherche postdoctorale ayant pour but d’analyser l’influence des modèles d’action (véhiculés par l’environnement social lors de l’apprentissage) sur les stratégies d’action du potier. / The main goal of our study was to provide an empirical demonstration of the influence of cultural constraints on motor performance. We focused on wheel throwing, an ancient craft skill that is still practiced in many societies. Inspired by the theoretical framework of the ecological approach to perception and action, we studied how a same task (throwing ceramic vessels on a wheel) was realised in different cultural environments in France and in two distinct communities in India. This study was made possible by the application of a standardised experimental approach within the different cultural contexts. The task consisted in reproducing four forms in two masses. The results were further developed by crossing experimental conditions between the two Indian populations. By analysing the action strategies and the vessels produced we were able to highlight a set of invariant characteristics. These invariants are interpreted as potters’ responses to the task constraints related of throwing a vessel. We suggest that all potters studied have acquired the principles underlying wheel throwing, independent of the (cultural) specifics of the conditions in which they evolve. At the same time, our results also revealed cultural modulations in the geometry of the vessels thrown and in the temporal organisation of the throwing activity. Such variations are interpreted as adaptations to the operative (material and social) cultural constraints specific to each group. Interestingly, social constraints were found to be as influential as material constraints (such as the type of wheel used). This latter observation led us to propose a post-doctoral research programme designed to analyse the influence of social action models (promulgated by the social environment during learning) on potter’s action strategies.

No description available.

Submitted by Delluiz Simões de Brito (delluiz.dsb@gmail.com) on 2015-04-25T02:44:56Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação_Ebape-FGV_Delluiz_Final.pdf: 902073 bytes, checksum: 8d215272b2f3940825ee89def07646b6 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Janete de Oliveira Feitosa (janete.feitosa@fgv.br) on 2015-05-06T13:51:05Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação_Ebape-FGV_Delluiz_Final.pdf: 902073 bytes, checksum: 8d215272b2f3940825ee89def07646b6 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Marcia Bacha (marcia.bacha@fgv.br) on 2015-05-06T14:03:43Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação_Ebape-FGV_Delluiz_Final.pdf: 902073 bytes, checksum: 8d215272b2f3940825ee89def07646b6 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2015-05-06T14:04:04Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação_Ebape-FGV_Delluiz_Final.pdf: 902073 bytes, checksum: 8d215272b2f3940825ee89def07646b6 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014-05-12 / Este estudo teve por objetivo identificar e classificar os stakeholders que influenciam e/ou são influenciados pela perícia oficial de natureza criminal e que, direta ou indiretamente, impactam a autonomia desse arranjo estatal, bem como, obter um conjunto de ações aos peritos oficiais como forma de exercer algum grau de influência no processo de autonomia. Foi abordada a Teoria dos Stakeholders e destacadas algumas propostas de classificação de partes interessadas. Foi eleita a proposta de classificação desenvolvida por Mainardes, Alves, et al. em trabalho apresentado no V Encontro de Estudos em Estratégia/3Es, realizado pela Associação Nacional de Pós-Graduação e Pesquisa em Administração (ANPAD), na cidade de Porto Alegre/RS, em maio de 2013, com o intuito de executar o teste empírico recomendado pelos autores da nova proposta de classificação. Os stakeholders foram identificados como resultado de entrevista coletiva a grupo focal composto por seis peritos oficiais criminais. Para fins de aplicação do teste empírico do modelo da proposta de classificação de stakeholders de Mainardes, Alves, et al. foi considerado um contexto empírico onde a organização, para fins da Teoria dos Stakeholders e deste trabalho, é a perícia oficial criminal e sua respectiva autonomia. Como resultado desse teste empírico, os stakeholders identificados e entrevistados foram classificados em dependente, passivo, parceiro, controlador ou regulador. Aqueles não abrangidos pela classificação são tidos como não stakeholders. Por fim, foi sugerido por esses stakeholders entrevistados um conjunto de ações aos peritos oficiais criminais como forma de exercerem algum grau de influência no processo de autonomia da perícia oficial de natureza criminal.

The modern organizations are becoming increasingly dependent on Information Technology (IT), which requires implementation of an effective management support on this area where the high investments achieved can add value for the companies. The intent of reducing the damage caused by unusual computer problems is to provide an active and complete technical assistance to the users. This support team, which is responsible for IT maintenance, was initially named help desk and later, it was modified to service desk due to its significance and the integrated services that were added in this work area. The high diversity of hardware and software besides the current user s demand, which increase the complexity of the technical assistance, creates a new request: the human resource allocation that provides an appropriate profile for solving different types of computers problems. Professionals, who don t have the proper expertise (work experience and practice) for specific maintenance, can bring unnecessary travel for the technician and work inactivity for the requester.This paper aims the adjustment of a service desk tool developed at the Federal University of Santa Maria. The remodelling involves a context-aware computing, location awareness and temporal context characteristics and the technician expertise. The main results demonstrate a service desk context-aware system (sdvpc-SC), that also enables its access through a mobile device and the improvement of technical calls distributed by expertise and geographical location. The tests proved that the system is technically possible and its adjustments can be easily implemented in different types systems of the same category. / As organizações modernas estão se tornando cada vez mais dependentes da Tecnologia da Informação (TI), o que torna imprescindível a implementação de um gerenciamento efetivo da TI para que os altos investimentos realizados no setor possam agregar valor às empresas. Quando surge um problema em algum equipamento de informática, ocasionando um funcionamento anormal dos serviços, espera-se que o usuário tenha uma resposta rápida e clara da equipe de suporte para minimizar os prejuízos causados. Esta equipe de suporte, responsável por resolver os problemas de TI, foi inicialmente denominada help desk, mas devido a sua importância e a novos serviços agregados a sua área de atuação passou a ser chamada de service desk. A grande diversidade de hardware e software aliada as atuais exigências dos usuários torna o atendimento mais complexo e cria uma nova demanda: a alocação de recursos humanos que apresentem o perfil adequado para resolução dos diferentes tipos de problemas. Alocar técnicos que não possuem a expertise (experiência e prática) correta para a solução do problema pode ocasionar, para o técnico, a perda de tempo pelo deslocamento desnecessário, e para o usuário a ociosidade devido à falta de solução do incidente no primeiro atendimento. Este trabalho apresenta a adaptação de uma ferramenta de service desk desenvolvida na Universidade Federal de Santa Maria. As adequações envolvem características da computação sensível ao contexto de localização, temporal e de expertise do técnico. Como principais resultados, obteve-se um sistema de service desk sensível ao contexto (sdvpc-SC), que possibilita o seu acesso através de dispositivo móvel, com a otimização das chamadas por expertise e a localização geográfica do técnico. Os testes demonstraram que o sistema é tecnicamente viável e as adaptações realizadas neste trabalho podem ser facilmente implementadas em diferentes tipos de sistemas da mesma categoria.