A diversidade beta pode ser definida como a mudança na composição de espécies entre locais em uma determinada área geográfica. Quantificar a contribuição relativa dos diferentes fatores que a afetam é essencial para entender como é mantida a diversidade das comunidades. Nosso estudo tem foco na vegetação lenhosa da região do Alto Camaquã, sul do Brasil (ca.30-31° S, 52-54° W), que está inserida no bioma Pampa e é caracterizada por ampla heterogeneidade ambiental com mosaicos de floresta e campo naturais. Com o objetivo de responder quais fatores tem mais influência na estruturação da comunidade de plantas lenhosas dessa região, distribuímos sistematicamente 60 unidades amostrais onde foram levantadas todas as espécies de plantas lenhosas. Primeiramente particionamos a diversidade beta através de RDA parcial e verificamos que as variáveis ambientais – que incluem variáveis climáticas, topográficas e edáficas – explicaram 28,4% da variação na composição de espécies, a distância geográfica explicou 16,6%, 14,7% foi compartilhado entre os dois componentes e 40,3% permaneceu não explicado. Com isso ficou claro que fatores determinísticos são mais importantes na estruturação das comunidades lenhosas. Em uma posterior análise de árvore de regressão multivariada, as variáveis climáticas foram selecionadas como as mais influentes. Além disso, a região de estudo é uma das mais bem conservadas do Estado. Portanto, em um segundo momento, investigamos a influência de fatores adicionais na diversidade beta das comunidades lenhosas, considerando o histórico de 300 anos de presença de manejo com pecuária familiar do Alto Camaquã. A partir de dados de um zoneamento agroecológico, exploramos a influência das diferentes tipologias de pecuária sobre dois estratos das comunidades de plantas lenhosas, plântulas e adultos, controlando o efeito da variação climática através de correlações matriciais. Encontramos que o manejo não está relacionado com o turnover de espécies de plântulas, contudo explica 12% da variação da diversidade beta de arbóreas. Concluímos, portanto, que a heterogeneidade climática da região gera heterogeneidade ambiental, sendo esta a principal determinante da diversidade das comunidades, apesar de processos neutros também influenciarem, em menor proporção. A presença do manejo não afeta de forma equitativa a comunidade de plantas lenhosas, contribuindo para a heterogeneidade florística da região. / Beta diversity can be defined as the shift in species composition among sites in a geographical area of interest. Quantifying the relative contributions of different processes that affect beta diversity is essential for understanding how diversity is maintained in communities. Our study focuses on the woody vegetation of the Alto Camaquã region, southernmost Brazil (c. 30-31° S, 52-54° W), which is within the domain of the Pampa biome and presents wide environmental heterogeneity showing natural forest-grassland patches. Aiming to answer which factors are most influential in the structuring of the woody plant communities, we systematically placed 60 sampling plots throughout the study area for vegetation survey. We partitioned beta diversity through partial RDA and verified that the environmental variables - which include climatic, topographic and edaphic variables - explained 28.4% of the variation in species composition, geographic distance accounted for 16.6%, 14.7% was shared between the two components and 40.3% of the variation remained unexplained. The deterministic processes are clearly the most important in structuring the woody communities. Further analysis using multivariate regression tree selected the climatic variables as the most influential. The study region shows a well conserved physiognomy, regardless of its 300-years history of land use for family cattleraising; hence in a second moment we investigated additional factors affecting diversity patterns of the plant communities surveyed, starting from available agroecological zoning data for land management. We explored the effect of the different typologies of family cattle-raising over two strata of the woody vegetation community, seedling and adult plants, controlling the effect of climate heterogeneity using matrix correlations (partial Mantel tests). We found that land management is not correlated with the species turnover of seedlings, yet explains 12% of the variation in the adult plants beta diversity. We concluded, hence, that climatic heterogeneity creates habitat heterogeneity, being the main determinant of community diversity, although neutral processes are also influent. Land management does not affect the woody plant community evenly, thus contributing to the floristic heterogeneity of the region.

A diversidade beta pode ser definida como a mudança na composição de espécies entre locais em uma determinada área geográfica. Quantificar a contribuição relativa dos diferentes fatores que a afetam é essencial para entender como é mantida a diversidade das comunidades. Nosso estudo tem foco na vegetação lenhosa da região do Alto Camaquã, sul do Brasil (ca.30-31° S, 52-54° W), que está inserida no bioma Pampa e é caracterizada por ampla heterogeneidade ambiental com mosaicos de floresta e campo naturais. Com o objetivo de responder quais fatores tem mais influência na estruturação da comunidade de plantas lenhosas dessa região, distribuímos sistematicamente 60 unidades amostrais onde foram levantadas todas as espécies de plantas lenhosas. Primeiramente particionamos a diversidade beta através de RDA parcial e verificamos que as variáveis ambientais – que incluem variáveis climáticas, topográficas e edáficas – explicaram 28,4% da variação na composição de espécies, a distância geográfica explicou 16,6%, 14,7% foi compartilhado entre os dois componentes e 40,3% permaneceu não explicado. Com isso ficou claro que fatores determinísticos são mais importantes na estruturação das comunidades lenhosas. Em uma posterior análise de árvore de regressão multivariada, as variáveis climáticas foram selecionadas como as mais influentes. Além disso, a região de estudo é uma das mais bem conservadas do Estado. Portanto, em um segundo momento, investigamos a influência de fatores adicionais na diversidade beta das comunidades lenhosas, considerando o histórico de 300 anos de presença de manejo com pecuária familiar do Alto Camaquã. A partir de dados de um zoneamento agroecológico, exploramos a influência das diferentes tipologias de pecuária sobre dois estratos das comunidades de plantas lenhosas, plântulas e adultos, controlando o efeito da variação climática através de correlações matriciais. Encontramos que o manejo não está relacionado com o turnover de espécies de plântulas, contudo explica 12% da variação da diversidade beta de arbóreas. Concluímos, portanto, que a heterogeneidade climática da região gera heterogeneidade ambiental, sendo esta a principal determinante da diversidade das comunidades, apesar de processos neutros também influenciarem, em menor proporção. A presença do manejo não afeta de forma equitativa a comunidade de plantas lenhosas, contribuindo para a heterogeneidade florística da região. / Beta diversity can be defined as the shift in species composition among sites in a geographical area of interest. Quantifying the relative contributions of different processes that affect beta diversity is essential for understanding how diversity is maintained in communities. Our study focuses on the woody vegetation of the Alto Camaquã region, southernmost Brazil (c. 30-31° S, 52-54° W), which is within the domain of the Pampa biome and presents wide environmental heterogeneity showing natural forest-grassland patches. Aiming to answer which factors are most influential in the structuring of the woody plant communities, we systematically placed 60 sampling plots throughout the study area for vegetation survey. We partitioned beta diversity through partial RDA and verified that the environmental variables - which include climatic, topographic and edaphic variables - explained 28.4% of the variation in species composition, geographic distance accounted for 16.6%, 14.7% was shared between the two components and 40.3% of the variation remained unexplained. The deterministic processes are clearly the most important in structuring the woody communities. Further analysis using multivariate regression tree selected the climatic variables as the most influential. The study region shows a well conserved physiognomy, regardless of its 300-years history of land use for family cattleraising; hence in a second moment we investigated additional factors affecting diversity patterns of the plant communities surveyed, starting from available agroecological zoning data for land management. We explored the effect of the different typologies of family cattle-raising over two strata of the woody vegetation community, seedling and adult plants, controlling the effect of climate heterogeneity using matrix correlations (partial Mantel tests). We found that land management is not correlated with the species turnover of seedlings, yet explains 12% of the variation in the adult plants beta diversity. We concluded, hence, that climatic heterogeneity creates habitat heterogeneity, being the main determinant of community diversity, although neutral processes are also influent. Land management does not affect the woody plant community evenly, thus contributing to the floristic heterogeneity of the region.

La transition agroécologique est annoncée par les pouvoirs publics comme le tournant majeur à venir de l’agriculture. Dans le même temps, les consommateurs et la société civile se montrent plus soucieux de l’alimentation et des questions agricoles. La dimension environnementale de la production agricole semble prendre une importance de plus en plus forte. L’agriculture francilienne doit alors composer avec ces nouvelles injonctions agricoles dans un contexte de grandes cultures implantées sur un territoire aux multiples enjeux (alimentaires, écologiques, économiques et d’aménagements). Quelle(s) forme(s) prend la transition agroécologique, quel(s) impact(s) a-t-elle sur les agriculteurs franciliens et la composition des exploitations, en quoi ces changements agricoles peuvent-ils amener à de nouvelles compositions territoriales : voici quelques-unes des questions qui animent et articulent ce travail doctoral. / Public authorities announced the agroecological transition as a major turning point to come for agriculture. At the same time, consumers and civil society are more and more aware of food and agricultural issues. The environmental dimension of the agricultural production seems to strongly gain in importance. The agriculture of the Île-de-France region is dealing with these new injunctions in a context of well-established field crops on a territory facing high stakes (regarding food, the environment, the economy and land planning). What form does this agroecological transition take, what impacts will this transition have for the farmers of Île-de-France and how do these changes lead to new territorial configurations: here are some of the issues that drive this doctoral research.

Les agrobactéries établissent des relations à long terme avec les plantes et ce, dans deux styles de vie différents, rhizosphérique et pathogène (galle du collet). Dans ce mode de vie, les bactéries modifient génétiquement leur hôte et se créent ainsi une niche écologique spécifique (tumeur). La transition entre les deux styles de vie est déclenchée par la perception de signaux végétaux, parmi lesquels des acides hydroxycinnamiques (HCAs) comme l’acide férulique. Or dans l’espèce Agrobacterium fabrum, des gènes spécifiques permettent la dégradation des HCAs. Nous avons émis l’hypothèse que cette dégradation était un signal de proximité de la plante et influençait alors des fonctions importantes pour l’interaction avec celle-ci. Nous avons caractérisé la régulation de la dégradation des HCAs, évalué son rôle dans la valeur sélective d’A. fabrum, et suggéré son importance dans la transition entre les styles de vie rhizosphérique et pathogène. Nous avons montré que la dégradation des HCAs module le métabolisme carboné bactérien, notamment l’utilisation d’acide aminés et d’oligosaccharides de la famille du raffinose. Nous avons caractérisé la protéine MelB qui permet l’import de ces sucres, du mélibiose et du galactinol. Leur utilisation est importante pour la colonisation des plantes dès la germination. L’analyse de l’expression des gènes et du métabolisme bactérien en présence d'un composé signal de la plante, nous a révélé de nouveaux déterminants importants pour l’écologie de ce phytopathogène, notamment des facteurs de transcription. En outre, cette analyse a confirmé l’importance des échanges cellulaires et de déterminants impliqués dans la compétition bactérienne / Agrobacterium establish long term interactions with plants, either in a rhizosphere or pathogenic lifestyle. Pathogenic agrobacteria are causing the crown gall disease by genetically modifying the plant cells host, thus creating a specific ecological niche (tumor). The transition from the rhizosphere to the pathogenic lifestyle is triggered by bacterial perception of plant-derived signals, including hydroxycinnamic acids (HCAs) such as ferulic acid. However, A. fabrum strains have species-specific genes that allow HCAs degradation.We hypothesized that in A. fabrum, the degradation of the HCAs is perceived as a plant signal which influences important functions involved in the interaction with plants. We characterized the regulation of HCAs degradation, evaluated its role in the fitness of A. fabrum, and suggested its importance for the transition between the rhizosphere and pathogenic lifestyles. Then, we showed that the degradation of HCAs modulates carbon metabolism, such as the use of amino acids and sugars belonging to the raffinose family oligosaccharides (RFO). We have demonstrated that besides these sugars, the MelB protein allows the import melibiose and galactinol. Their use is important for plant colonization, since seed germination. The analyzes of gene expression and bacterial metabolism in the presence of a plant signal compound, revealed new determinants important for A. fabrum ecology, including transcription factors. In addition, it confirmed the importance of cellular exchanges and bacterial competition for Agrobacterium fitness in planta

L'objectif général de cette thèse est l'évaluation ex ante des politiques économiques nécessaires en Europe dans la lutte contre le changement climatique. Au-delà de l'objectif environnemental, une attention particulière a été portée aux résultats d'emploi de ces politiques. L'analyse des scénarios construits dans cette optique, nous a conduits aux constats suivants: (i) pour respecter les recommandations du GIEC, l'action politique est urgente et doit être forte. (ii) La volonté nécessaire pour mettre en place ces politiques est certes significative, mais l'intensité des efforts n'a rien d'exceptionnel d'un point de vue historique (à l'inverse du réchauffement climatique qui est un défi historique). (iii) S'ils sont bien calibrés, les instruments économiques qui ont pour but de réduire les émissions de gaz à effet de serre, permettront également d'améliorer la situation de l'emploi en Europe. (iv) Néanmoins, il serait très risqué d'attendre, pour agir, de trouver des politiques climatiques qui puissent en même temps résorber la totalité du chômage européen, car il est très improbable que de telles politiques soient possibles. En effet, le marché du travail connaît actuellement de lourds déséquilibres, et fera face dans les prochaines décennies à des risques structurels importants. Un des scénarios de cette étude nous a amenés à entreprendre une investigation empirique pour vérifier un choix de modélisation que nous avons fait. Nous avons alors développé un modèle économétrique original pour capter les effets des changements de préférence dans la consommation. Le filtre de Kalman a ainsi été utilisé pour estimer le biais de changement de préférence au moyen d'un système de demande de consommation en données de panel. Plusieurs changements structurels indépendants de l'évolution des prix ou des revenus, tels que la montée des préoccupations des consommateurs pour l'environnement, la santé et le bien-être, ont été identifiés dans nos estimations. Par ailleurs les résultats empiriques apportés par ce modèle confirment que les changements de comportement de consommation simulés dans le scénario construit en première partie sont d'un ordre de grandeur raisonnable. / The general objective of this dissertation is the ex ante assessment of the economic policy response needed in the European Union to take up the climate change issue. Moreover, we tried to maximise the employment results of these policies. The results of the scenarios designed in this framework, lead us to the following beliefs: (i) to respect the recommendations of the IPCC, which is an absolute necessity, the political reaction needs to be rapid and strong from now. (ii) Despite the intensity of the policy response, the scale of the endeavours is not so exceptional in a historical perspective, while global warming is definitely a historical challenge. (iii) The economic instruments aiming at reducing GHG emissions will result, if they are well calibrated, in a significant better situation of the European labour market. (iv) However it would be very dangerous to wait for climate mitigation policies that could selve also completely the labour market issue, because such policies are unlikely to exist. Indeed, the European labour market currently faces serious difficulties and will face important structural risks in the next decades. It is a good thing if the mitigation policies participate to the solution, but the structural disequilibrium of labour market requires a much larger response from policy makers. One of the policy response scenarios led us to make an empirical investigation to verify the credibility of one modelling choice we made. Then, we developed an original econometric mode! aiming to capture the effect of the preferences change on consumption. We used therefore the Kalman fil ter to estimate this bias of preference changes in a consumption demand system in the framework of a panel data model. Severa! structural changes independent of prices or income motions, such as the rise in environmental, health, and well-being concems, are captured by our estimations. Moreover, the empirical results provided by the mode! confirm that the consumers behaviour changes simulated in the scenario built in the first part, are in a reasonable order of magnitude.

Abstract In this study I examine how the parents describe the child's starting school as an ecological transition from pre-school to school growth environments. This concept is based on Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory. In terms of time-frames starting school is understood as a transition process which begins in the pre-school year, continues during the first school year and includes changes in the child's growth environment as well as in the child's role. The data derives from interviews with 21 parents of children from diverse educational contexts and the journals and interviews of parents from an additional three families. In this study, a child's growth environment changed during the transition process from a child-centred, play- and learning environment to a goal-oriented learning and teaching environment directed by the teacher; from a social growth environment to a more individual working environment; and from a preparatory working culture (directed towards school-attendance) to an educative working culture aimed at citizenship. The child's role changed in the process from that of a pre-schooler to a school beginner, to a school child. This study brings in the school beginner's role. The transition process was most flexible for pre-schoolers from the combined class, secure and multi-phased for pre-schoolers from the pre-school and school co-operation unit. For the Montessori child the transition was natural and quick, for pre-schoolers from the day-care unit, it was longest and most problematic. In conclusion, my research suggests that, although our school system aims to be equal for all, this is not the reality during the pre-school and school starting phases. However, by the end of the first school year all the children in this study had adjusted to the school context. They had fulfilled the criteria and expectations set for the role of the school child: such as becoming an academic learner; a performer of tasks, an object of evaluation; a responsible, concerned and well-behaved pupil, and a school companion. In summary, the school working-culture had a powerful homogenizing effect, adjusting the child to the school and to the role of school child. / Tiivistelmä Tutkimuksessa lähestyn lapsen koulunaloittamista ekologisena siirtymänä esiopetuksen kasvuympäristöstä perusopetuksen kasvuympäristöön ja tarkastelen millaiseksi vanhemmat kuvaavat tämän siirtymän. Koulunaloittaminen ekologisena siirtymänä perustuu Bronfenbrennerin ekologiseen teoriaan. Ajallisesti koulunaloittaminen ymmärretään siirtymäprosessina, joka alkaa esiopetusvuotena ja jatkuu ensimmäisen kouluvuoden aikana. Siirtymäprosessi sisältää lapsen kasvuympäristön ja lapsen roolin muutoksen. Erityisesti tarkastelen millaiseksi 21 oululaista vanhempaa kuvaavat kasvuympäristön kulttuurisen muutoksen esikoulun toimintakulttuurista koulun toimintakulttuuriksi ja lapsen roolin muutoksen esikoululaisesta koululaiseksi. Tutkimus on lähestymistavaltaan ekologinen, ja tarkastelun kohteena ovat arkielämän kontekstissa tapahtuvat yksilön ja kasvuympäristön vastavuoroiset vuorovaikutus- ja muutosprosessit. Koulunaloittaminen siirtymäprosessina on lapsen ja kasvuympäristön keskinäinen muutos- ja sopeutumisprosessi. Kasvuympäristön kulttuurisen muutoksen tarkastelu muodostaa tutkimukseni taustan ja lähtökohdan. Roolimuutosta tutkin kunnallisen päiväkodin, esi- ja alkuopetuksen yhteistoimintayksikön, montessoripainotteisen päiväkodin ja esi- ja alkuopetuksen yhdysluokan esiopetuskontekstissa sekä koulukontekstissa. Tutkimusaineisto koostuu 13 perheen vanhempien haastatteluista ja kolmen perheen vanhempien kirjoittamista päiväkirjadokumenteista ja heidän haastatteluistaan. Vanhempien mukaan lapsen kasvuympäristö muuttui esikoulusta kouluun siirryttäessä lapsikeskeisestä, leikki- ja oppimisympäristöstä opettajajohtoiseksi, tavoitteelliseksi oppimis- ja opetusympäristöksi, sosiaalisesta kasvuympäristöstä enemmän yksin työskentely -ympäristöksi ja kouluun valmentavasta toimintakulttuurista kansalaiskasvatuksen toimintakulttuuriksi. Tämän muutoksen rinnalla vastaavasti lapsen rooli muuttui prosessinluonteisesti esikoululaisesta koulunaloittajaksi ja koululaiseksi. Koulunaloittajan roolin löytyminen oli yksi tutkimukseni päätulos. Roolimuutos kaikkinensa oli vähäisin esi- ja alkuopetuksen yhdysluokan esikoululaisilla, jotka olivat harjoitelleet koululaisen roolia koulukontekstissa jo esiopetusvuoden aikana. Suurin ja jyrkin roolimuutos oli kunnallisesta päiväkodista sekä montessoripainotteisesta päiväkodista siirtyneillä esikoululaisilla, joille koulukonteksti ja koululaisen rooli olivat etukäteen vieraita. Yksilöllinen ja vaihteleva roolimuutos oli esi- ja alkuopetuksen yhteistoimintayksiköstä siirtyneillä esikoululaisilla, jotka olivat etukäteen tutustuneet koulun sosiaaliseen ja akateemiseen ympäristöön. Kouluun siirtyminen lapsen ja kasvuympäristön keskinäisenä muutos- ja sopeutumisprosessina oli joustavin, helpoin ja yksilöllisin esi- ja alkuopetuksen yhdysluokan esikoululaisilla, turvallinen ja monivaiheinen esi- ja alkuopetuksen yhteistoimintayksikön esikoululaisilla, luonteva ja nopea montessorilapsella ja pitkäkestoisin ja ongelmallisin päiväkodin esikoululaisilla. Tulosten johtopäätöksenä voidaan todeta, että vaikka koulutusjärjestelmämme pyrkii olemaan kaikille yhdenvertainen, se ei ole sitä esiopetus- ja koulunaloitusvaiheessa. Kuitenkin ensimmäisen kouluvuoden päättyessä kaikki tutkimuksen lapset olivat sopeutuneet koulukontekstiin ja täyttivät koululaisen roolille asetetut kriteerit ja odotukset akateemisena oppijana, tehtävien suorittajana, arvioitavana, vastuullisena, huolehtivana ja hyvin käyttäytyvänä koulunkävijänä ja koulukaverina. Koulun toimintakulttuurilla oli vahva sopeuttava ja yhdenmukaistava merkitys lapsen kouluun sopeutumisessa ja koululaiseksi kasvussa.

Cette thèse explore deux questions autour de la précarité énergétique en France. Quel(s) indicateur(s) adopter pour quantifier la précarité énergétique et capturer ses multiples dimensions? Dans quelle mesure la fiscalité écologique pourrait-elle amplifier le phénomène ou, au contraire, constituer une opportunité de le combattre?Un premier chapitre introduit les enjeux sociaux et économiques de la précarité énergétique en France, ainsi que les défis que ce phénomène soulève pour les acteurs publics dans le cadre de la transition écologique (chapitre 1). Puis la thèse s'organise en deux grandes parties. La première partie concerne la quantification de la précarité énergétique. Je commence par rappeler les débats actuels autour de la mesure de la précarité énergétique et par souligner les limites des approches existantes (chapitre 2). Puis, j’explore la dimension transport du phénomène et propose un indice composite qui cible les différents facteurs qui contraignent la mobilité des ménages et leurs possibilités d’adaptation. Cet indice identifie trois niveaux d’exposition à une hausse des prix des carburants : précarité, vulnérabilité et dépendance (chapitre 3). Je poursuis ensuite la réflexion sur la construction d’un indice multidimensionnel de précarité énergétique et je cherche à mettre à jour ses implications politiques. Deux indices sont élaborés : un pour le logement et un pour le transport. Je montre comment ces nouveaux indices, parce qu’ils s’intéressent au cumul des facteurs qui désavantagent les ménages en matière d’énergie, permettent de limiter les erreurs d’inclusion et d’exclusion reprochées aux approches classiques. Une application dans le contexte français apporte de nouvelles perspectives sur le ciblage des réponses politiques et souligne la nécessité de remédier aux dimensions non monétaires de la précarité énergétique (chapitre 4).La seconde partie concerne les impacts distributifs de la fiscalité carbone. A partir d'une revue de la littérature, je précise les enjeux méthodologiques et les choix de modélisation pour rendre compte de manière satisfaisante de la distribution des impacts (chapitre 5). Je développe ensuite un modèle de microsimulation spécialement conçu pour évaluer l’impact sur les ménages de la taxe carbone française. Ce modèle simule, pour un échantillon représentatif de la population française, les taxes prélevées sur leur consommation d’énergie dans le logement et le transport. Je l’utilise pour quantifier l’impact de la taxe carbone sur les inégalités et la précarité énergétique. Enfin, j’explore ensuite différents scénarios de redistribution aux ménages avec pour objectif de corriger les iniquités engendrées - en particulier compenser la régressivité de la taxe carbone et combattre la précarité énergétique. J’évalue le coût de ces mesures au regard des recettes de la taxe carbone (chapitre 6). / This thesis explores two questions about fuel poverty in France: What indicator(s) should be adopted to quantify fuel poverty and capture its multiple dimensions? To what extent does ecological taxation amplify the phenomenon or, on the contrary, provides an opportunity to fight it?A first chapter introduces the social and economic issues of fuel poverty in France, as well as the challenges this phenomenon raises for public actors in the context of an ecological transition (chapter 1). Then the thesis is divided into two main parts.The first part deals with the measurement of fuel poverty. I start by highlighting the current debates on the measurement of fuel poverty and the limitations of existing approaches (chapter 2). Next, I explore the transport dimension of fuel poverty and I propose a composite index of the various factors that constrain household mobility and their possibilities to adapt to higher fuel prices. This index identifies three levels of exposure to rising fuel prices: precariousness, vulnerability and dependence (chapter 3). I then continue studying the design of a multidimensional index of energy poverty and I seek to uncover its political implications. Two indices are developed: one for housing and one for transport. I show how these new indices, through addressing the cumulative factors that disadvantage households in terms of energy, can help limit the inclusion and exclusion errorsfrom which conventional approaches suffer. Quantification in the French context brings new insights on the targeting of policy responses and emphasizes the need to address the non-monetary dimensions of fuel poverty (chapter 4). The second part studies the distributive impacts of carbon taxation. Based on a review of literature, I discuss the methodological issues and the modelling choices to represent the distribution of impacts (chapter 5). I then develop a microsimulation model to assess the impact of the French carbon tax on households. This model simulates, for a representative sample of the French population, the taxes levied on their energy consumption in housing and transport. I use this model to quantify the impact of the carbon tax on inequality and fuel poverty. Finally, I explore different scenarios of redistribution of carbon tax revenues to households, with the objective to correct the found inequities - in particular, to compensate for the regressivity of the carbon tax and to reduce fuel poverty. I evaluate the cost of these measures in respect to the amount of carbon tax revenues (chapter 6).

This short paper considers all possible stakeholders in different stages of a sustainability transition and matches their behavioral features and diversity to policies. This will involve an assessment of potential or expected responses of stakeholders to a range of policy instruments. Following the Multi-Level Perspective framework to conceptualize sustainability transitions, we classify the various transition policies at niche, regime and landscape levels. Next, we offer a complementary classification of policies based on a distinction between social preferences and bounded rationality. The paper identifies many barriers to making a sustainability transition and how to respond to them. In addition, lessons are drawn from the case of Denmark. The detailed framework and associated literature for the analysis was discussed in Milestone 31 of the WWWforEurope project (Gazheli et al., 2012). / Series: WWWforEurope

No description available.