No período 2003-11, os preços internacionais de commodities tiveram significativa valorização em termos tanto nominais quanto reais, o que melhorou os termos de troca para os países exportadores líquidos desses produtos, entre eles o Brasil. Esse movimento esteve associado ao crescimento econômico mais robusto para esses países, se comparado com o período anterior ao boom de preços. Frente a essa conjuntura, o propósito que se pretende alcançar neste trabalho é verificar a relação entre o crescimento econômico brasileiro e a performance desses preços relativos nos anos 2000, por meio de seus possíveis canais de transmissão. Considera-se a existência de cinco possíveis canais: (a) efeito-preço nas exportações de commodities; (b) efeito-quantum nas exportações de manufaturados para outros países exportadores de commodities; (c) resultados no emprego; (d) a possibilidade de se elevarem as importações e, portanto, atender-se à demanda doméstica; e, por fim, (e) a elevação das receitas fiscais. O impacto no crescimento econômico depende, assim, da magnitude desses canais na economia e de o país aproveitar, ou não, essas oportunidades. Neste sentido, defende-se a possibilidade de usufruir desses estímulos externos para o desenvolvimento econômico, com o pressuposto da inexistência de uma maldição dos recursos naturais. / In the period 2003-2011, international commodity prices had significant appreciation both in nominal and real terms, which improved the terms of trade for net exporters of these products, including Brazil. This movement was associated with a more robust economic growth for these countries compared with the period before the price boom. Taking this situation into account, the aim of this paper is to investigate the relationship between Brazil's economic growth and the performance of these relative prices in the 2000s through its possible transmission channels. This study considers the existence of five possible channels: (a) price effect on the exports of commodities; (b) quantum-effect on manufactured exports to commodity-exporting countries; (c) employment outcomes; (d) the possibility of raising imports, thus stimulating domestic demand; and, finally (e) the increase in tax revenues. The impact on economic growth, therefore, depends on the magnitude of these channels in the country's economy and whether or not the country takes advantage of these opportunities. In this regard, called for the possibility of access to such external stimulation for productive diversification, with the assumption of the absence of a resource curse.

Credit risk mitigation that can be applied by commercial banks in assessing the lending decision /credit risk when advances and equity investments are considered for BEE classified companies. / A research report presented to the Graduate School of Business Leadership, University of South Africa / The previous political dispensation limited black people’s participation in the South African economy. Poor credit records, lack of training, resulting in skills and capacity gaps further limited entry into the lending market. These aspects are considered the main limitations in obtaining finance for the Small, Medium and Micro Enterprises (SMMEs). This research report focuses on how credit risk can be mitigated by commercial banks in lending to Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) companies in the medium to large market. Exploratory research was conducted using various methods to achieve methodological triangulation. These methods consisted of a literature review, interviewing experts in the field and case studies. A qualitative research approach was followed. It was found that the lack of own contribution and security were still prevalent in the medium to large market, but the quality of management (little training and skills) was deemed not to be a limitation as suitable credit risk mitigants were identified. No credit risk mitigants were identified to mitigate poor credit records. It is postulated that by adopting and applying the identified credit risk mitigants, commercial banks can increase their success rate in lending to BEE companies. It will further assist in the transformation of black people and compliance with the Financial Services Charter. It is recommended that a similar study be conducted in the agriculture, hunting, forestry and fishing industry. The reasons why BEE companies applications are declined could also be investigated. Further studies could also explore other external factors such as economical, legal and social that could have an influence on the funding of BEE companies.

L'Homme est le bénéficiaire ultime et l'intrant essentiel du développement et de la croissance. Le capital humain identifié comme moteur de la croissance économique est fortement lié à la variable démographique. L'institution familiale par ses décisions de fécondité et d'investissement en éducation de ses membres est un préambule pour la formation du capital humain. L'intérêt est porté, alors, à l'interaction entre la quantité et la qualité de l'Homme. Notre étude de la croissance économique est conduite par l'analyse de la fécondité comme variable de croissance économique. Elle cherche à dégager les influences de la fécondité notamment par ses interactions avec l'éducation dans l'explication des performances économiques. Grâce à des analyses: macro et microéconomique, nous vérifions la présence d'une association éducation-fécondité et sa contribution dans le processus de la croissance pour la Tunisie. Une analyse quantitative dynamique du lien entre la fécondité, l'éducation et la croissance économique aussi bien à long terme qu'à court terme au cours de la période 1963-2007 est entreprise employant les techniques de séries temporelles. Aussi, une analyse quantitative de la fécondité : naturelle, désirée, réelle, de l'écart et de la régulation est mise en œuvre par des modèles micro économétriques tels que ceux de choix discret, de comptage et de durée. Elle prouve que le comportement des ménages est guidé par l'arbitrage entre la quantité et la qualité d'enfants et met en évidence les déterminants économiques et socioculturels. Ces analyses permettent d'annoncer les politiques cadrant le comportement familial de fécondité dans le processus de développement. / Human is the final benefit and the essential input of economic growth and development. Human capital as an economic growth driving force is strongly influenced by demographic variables. Family institution is a preliminary for human capital accumulation considering its fertility and education investment in its member's decision. Hence, human capital analysis leads necessary to endogenous population growth. Then, our interest is focused to human quantity and quality interaction. Our economic growth investigation is so conducted by analysing fertility as economic growth variable. Our essay is to put out fertility influences notably by its interaction with education in explaining economic performances. Referring to macro and micro economic family analysis, we verify education/fertility relationship and its contribution in the growth process in Tunisian case. A long and short dynamic quantitative analysis of fertility, education and growth equilibrium relationship over the period 1963-2007 is undertaken using times series technique. Although a quantitative analysis of actual, desired, their gap, natural and regulation fertility is applied using micro econometric models such as dichotomous model, count data model and duration model. It attests that Tunisian household behaviour is shaped by quantity-quality children trade-off and also highlights economic and sociocultural fertility determinants. These analyses give out policies matching family fertility behaviour in the development process.

Charles University in Prague Faculty of Social Sciences Institute of Economic Studies DISSERTATION THESIS ABSTRACT Essays on Natural Resource Richness, Economic Growth and Institutional Quality Author: Ayaz Zeynalov Supervisor: Doc. Roman Horvath, Ph.D Academic Year: 2016/2017 Abstract This dissertation consists of three empirical papers on natural resource, economic growth and institutional quality. The first paper analyzes possible publication bias and the reason for contradictory findings in the natural resource literature, the second paper examines the effect of natural resource exports on manufacturing performance in the 15 former Soviet Union countries, and the last addresses whether similarities in country income size and at the institutional level encourage increased amounts of bilateral trade between countries. An introductory chapter puts these three papers into perspective. In the first paper, I analyze 43 studies providing 605 different regression specifica- tions and found that approximately 40% report a negative and statistically significant effect, another 40% report no effect, and the remaining 20% report a positive and statistically significant effect of natural resources on economic growth. The findings show that including interaction between natural resources and institutional quality, controlling...

The impact of inequality on economic growth has become a topic of broad and current interest. Multiple researches investigated the issue but the disparity of opinions and empirical results is huge. The present thesis revises the pri- mary literature through a meta-analytical approach applying Bayesian Model Averaging (BMA) estimation technique. We examine 562 estimates collected from 58 studies published between 1991 and 2015. I find the evidence of the publication bias presence in the literature. The authors of primary studies tend to report preferentially negative and significant estimates. The BMA results suggest that the effect of inequality on growth is not straightforward and is likely not linear. A single pattern for inequality/growth relationship is not fea- sible since the results vary across used income inequality measures, estimation methods and data structure and quality. JEL Classification D31, O10, C11, C82 Keywords meta-analysis, inequality, economic growth, Bayesian model averaging, publication bias Author's e-mail 23376990@fsv.cuni.cz Supervisor's e-mail zuzana.havrankova@fsv.cuni.cz

[pt] Os impactos do aprofundamento financeiro e crescimento econômico são amplamente discutidos na literatura econômica. Tendo em vista a recente crise financeira, seus efeitos de longo-prazo devem ser analisados mais detalhadamente. Esse trabalho busca investigar o mecanismo de transmissão do aumento de crédito via a estrutura concorrencial do mercado bancário. Com suficiente concorrência nesse setor, o número de bancos será um bom instrumento para crédito em uma regressão de crescimento. São encontradas evidências de variação de concorrência no mercado bancário brasileiro no nível local, bem como uma não linearidade na entrada de bancos em um determinado mercado. Por fim, ao incorporar essa relação não linear no número de bancos no primeiro estágio da regressão de crescimento, constata-se que, como esperado, não só os impactos da oferta de crédito sobre o crescimento econômico são positivos, mas também que a estratégia de identificação estava bem especificada, já que os efeitos positivos do crescimento sobre o estoque de crédito foram eliminados corretamente. / [en] The impacts of financial deepening on economic growth have been broadly discussed in the economic literature. Due to the recent financial crisis, its long-run effects must be carefully analyzed. This paper seeks to investigate the mechanism in which credit increases affect growth through the banking sector market structure. With enough competition in this market, the number of banks will be a good instrument for credit in a growth regression. Evidences of competition variability in the Brazilian banking sector are found at the local level as well as a non-linearity in bank entry at a specific market. Finally, after including this non-linear relationship in the growth regression’s first stage, it was found that, as expected, not only are the impacts of a credit increase positive but also that the identification strategy was well specified, since the positive effect of growth on credit was eliminated correctly.

O presente estudo aborda a demografia e seus impactos na economia. A redução das taxas de fecundidade e de mortalidade, acompanhadas pelo aumento da expectativa de vida da população, tiveram como consequência a queda da taxa de crescimento populacional e mudanças na estrutura etária da população brasileira. Esse fenômeno também condiciona a chamada transição demográfica, processo no qual ocorre redução na proporção de crianças e aumento na proporção de pessoas idosas na população. A literatura supõe que esse processo esteja relacionado com o crescimento econômico, de forma que regiões com menor taxa de dependência (proporção de crianças e idosos na população) devem apresentar maior crescimento econômico. Utilizando-se técnicas de análise exploratória de dados espaciais (AEDE) para Áreas Mínimas Comparáveis (AMC) e de econometria para dados em painel, foi comprovada a relação inversa entre taxa de dependência e crescimento econômico com ambas as técnicas para o Brasil. A taxa de dependência indicou que o componente infantil predomina no Brasil e que as regiões do Brasil mais desenvolvidas em termos de mudança demográfica são as Sul e Sudeste. Tanto as taxas de dependência infantil e de idosos mostraram influenciar negativamente o modelo de crescimento econômico brasileiro, contribuindo para diminuir o caráter dúbio da última taxa mediante utilização de método econométrico que corrige para o problema da endogeneidade - Gmm-System. Foi também investigada a influência da demografia sobre o consumo utilizando-se dados da Pesquisa de Orçamentos familiares (POF) ano base 2002-2003 para o Rio Grande do Sul, indicando que os setores máquinas e tratores, material elétrico e eletrônico, material de transportes, outras indústrias, instituições financeiras, serviços prestados às famílias e às empresas, aluguel de imóveis, administração pública e serviços privados não-mercantis, possuem um efeito positivo do envelhecimento populacional no consumo, o que podemos chamar de quebracabeça ao contrário do consumo na aposentadoria. Ademais, o consumo total indicou ser estável, o que parece fazer sentido, uma vez que existem também setores cujo consumo diminui com a idade. Com isso, evidenciou-se a importância da demografia tanto no crescimento econômico quanto no consumo para o Brasil e o Rio Grande do Sul, respectivamente. / This study addresses the demography and its impact on the economy. The reduction of fertility and mortality, followed by an increase in life expectancy of the population, has resulted in a decline in population growth and changes in the age structure of the population. This phenomenon also affects the so-called demographic transition process in which there is a reduction in the proportion of children and an increase in the proportion of aged people in the population. Literature assumes that this process is related to economic growth, so that regions with lower dependency ratio (proportion of children and aged people in the population) should have higher economic growth. Using techniques of exploratory spatial data analysis (ESDA) for Minimum Comparable Areas (MCA) and of econometrics for panel data, it has been proved the inverse relationship between the rate of dependency and economic growth with both techniques for Brazil. The dependency ratio indicated that the child component predominates in Brazil and that the more developed regions of Brazil in terms of demographic change are the South and Southeast. Both rates of child and aged dependency influenced negatively the model of Brazilian economic growth, helping to reduce the dubiousness of the last rate by using econometric method that corrects for the endogeneity problem - Gmm- System. It was also investigated the influence of demography on consumption using data of the Household Budget Survey (HBS) base year 2002-2003 for Rio Grande do Sul indicating that sectors of machinery and tractors, electrical and electronic equipment, transport equipment, other industries, financial institutions, services to families and business, property rental, government and private non-market services, have a positive effect from aging on consumption, what we could call an “unlike retirement consumption puzzle”. Moreover, the complete consumption indicated to be stable, which seem to make sense, since there are also areas which consumption decreases with age. With that, the importance of demographics in both economic growth and the consumption for Brazil and Rio Grande do Sul, respectively, has been evidenced.

O presente trabalho discute como uma mudança de paradigma econômico pode contribuir para uma economia ecologicamente responsável. Em linha com esse propósito num primeiro momento são apresentados os sinais da necessidade dessa mudança. Nessa primeira parte são apresentadas algumas das insuficiências das ferramentas econômicas tradicionais para uma harmonização com o meio ambiente. Num segundo momento são discutidas ideias alternativas para a abordagem da relação entre crescimento econômico e meio ambiente: economia e entropia, estado estacionário e prosperidade sem crescimento. Nessas discussões foi dada ênfase aos estudos dos economistas Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen, Herman Daly e Timothy Jackson. Na parte seguinte são discutidas as implicações éticas para o desenvolvimento de um modelo econômico ecologicamente responsável. Por fim, por meio do estudo da Comissão Stiglitz-Sen-Fitoussi, do Índice de Progresso Social e de Índices de Felicidade argumenta-se como novas medidas de desenvolvimento econômico, social e ambiental podem contribuir para um paradigma econômico ecologicamente responsável. / This study discuss how a change of economic paradigm could contribute to an environmentally responsible economy. In order to do this, at first, the signs of the need for this paradigm shift are presented. On this matter the shortcomings of traditional economic tools for harmonization with the environment are analysed. Secondly, alternative ideias to address the relationship between economic growth and the environment, such as economy and entropy, steady state, and prosperity without growth are discussed. In these discussions the studies of economists like Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen, Herman Daly and Timothy Jackson, are emphasized. In the next part of this study the ethical implications for the development of an environmentally responsible economic model are approached. Finally, through the study of the Stiglitz-Sen-Fitoussi Comssion, the Social Progress Index and Happiness Index, it is shown how new measures of economic, social and environmental development could contribute to an environmentally responsible economic paradigm.

A importância do investimento em capital humano para o crescimento econômico de um país foi o que motivou esta dissertação. Procuramos explicá-lo analisando a eficácia na utilização da verba do Programa Nacional de Assistência Estudantil (PNAES), através do desempenho acadêmico dos estudantes. Inicialmente, apresentamos uma revisão de alguns modelos desenvolvidos para explicar o crescimento econômico e após, incluímos a visão dos economistas Adam Smith e Alfred Marshall sobre a relação entre crescimento econômico e educação. A Teoria do Capital Humano nas visões de Theodore Schultz, Gary Becker e Jacob Mincer foi apresentada e comentamos a influência do nível de educação no crescimento econômico e as externalidades positivas da educação. Através de uma perspectiva histórica, mostramos como a educação superior foi expandindo ao longo dos anos e, através de pesquisa documental, apresentamos as mais recentes políticas públicas educacionais para o ensino superior no Brasil. Abordamos amplamente o PNAES e sua aplicação na Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS). Foi realizada a análise dos dados da pesquisa, através do teste t-Student para duas amostras independentes, com o propósito de verificar se as ações motivadas pelo PNAES têm garantido igualdade de condições entre os estudantes em vulnerabilidade socioeconômica e que são beneficiários do PNAES e os demais estudantes. Optamos por utilizar a Taxa de Integralização Média (TIM) do curso e a do estudante para avaliar o desempenho acadêmico. Concluímos que o PNAES foi parcialmente eficaz quando comparamos o desempenho acadêmico dos estudantes de graduação da UFRGS: beneficiados e não beneficiados, cujas médias das TIMs percentuais não são iguais, mas os dois grupos apresentaram uma média da TIM percentual superior a 50% da média da TIM dos respectivos cursos, evidenciando que os estudantes vão conseguir concluir o seu curso no tempo máximo permitido pela Universidade. No grupo de estudantes que ingressaram na modalidade baixa renda, os dados evidenciaram que o PNAES está sendo eficaz porque não existe igualdade entre as médias das taxas percentuais e, também, observamos que os estudantes que solicitaram os benefícios apresentam, na média, taxas maiores do que os demais. Recomendamos a realização de estudos detalhados do desempenho acadêmico por curso, o acompanhamento pedagógico aos estudantes beneficiados, a manutenção de banco de dados atualizado e a avaliação permanente do PNAES por meio de indicadores de monitoramento. / The importance of investment in human capital for the economic growth of a country was the motivation for this thesis. We attempt to explain this by analyzing the efficacy in the use of the National Program of Student Assistance (PNAES) through the analysis of the academic performance of students. We begin by showing a review of some models developed to explain the economic growth. Then, we introduce the views of the economists Adam Smith and Alfred Marshall on the relation between economic growth and education. We then present the Human Capital Theory from the viewpoints of Theodore Schultz, Gary Becker and Jacob Mincer and comment on the influence of the level of education on the economic growth and the positive externalities of education. Next, we use a historical perspective to demonstrate how higher education has expanded over the years, and we use documentary research to present the most recent affirmative actions in higher education in Brazil. We approach in detail the application of PNAES at Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS). We used Student's t-test for the data analysis of two independent samples in order to verify if the actions encouraged by PNAES have been assuring equal conditions among regular students and students who face social economic vulnerability and are beneficiaries of PNAES. We use the course and the student's Average Completion Rates (TIM) to evaluate academic performance. Based on the comparison between students of higher education at UFRGS who are beneficiaries of PNAES and students who are not beneficiaries of PNAES, we concluded that PNAES was partially effective. The percentage TIMs are not the same for the two groups, but both have percentage TIM above 50% in regards to the average TIM of the respective courses. This shows both groups of students will be able to conclude their courses within the time allowed by the university. Considering only the group of students who joined the university through the low-income modality, data show that PNAES has been effective because there is no equality between the average percentage rates. We have also noted that students who applied for the grant have, on average, higher rates than the remaining students do. We recommend the conduction of detailed studies on academic performance per course, pedagogic supervision of beneficiaries, maintenance of updated database, and permanent evaluation of PNAES with monitoring indicators.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / O objetivo principal dessa dissertação é examinar, através da experiência internacional, de que maneira a utilização de Zonas de Processamento de Exportações (ZPEs) como instrumento de política econômica influencia o crescimento econômico e alguns outros indicadores econômicos de um país. Para isso, além da análise da experiência internacional na forma de alguns estudos de caso de países que tem utilizado as ZPEs, recorreu-se à revisão da literatura teórica (neoclássica e endógena) e empírica de crescimento econômico. O arcabouço empírico utilizado é uma extensão dos trabalhos recentes de Barro e Sala-i-Martin (2004) e Loayza, Fajnzylber e Calderón (2004), para o período de 1960-1999, elaborados por métodos econométricos. A ênfase desses trabalhos é explicar como o crescimento econômico é empiricamente relacionado a vários determinantes, inclusive políticas econômicas. A novidade da presente pesquisa é a incorporação da existência de ZPE tanto na análise teórica mas principalmente na análise empírica econométrica, com a introdução de uma variável dummy ZPE para captar o efeito dessas zonas. Os resultados obtidos confirmaram que a introdução de Zonas de Processamento de Exportações, consistente com a extensão da teoria de crescimento econômico endógeno, influencia positiva e significativamente o crescimento econômico. / The primary objective of this dissertation is to examine, based on evidence from the international experience, how the use of Export Processing Zones (EPZs), as an instrument of economic policy, influences a countrys economic growth and other economic indicators. To do this, in addition to examining a number of country case studies where governments have employed EPZs, we base our analysis on the theoretical literature on economic growth (both neoclassical and endogenous) and recent, theoretically focused, empirical analyses of economic growth. The primary analytical framework employed in this dissertation is an extension of recent empirical studies by: (i) Barro and Sala-i-Martin (2004) and (ii) Loayza, Fajnzylber and Calderon (2004). The emphasis of both these studies is to explain how economic growth is empirically related to various determinants, including economic policy variables. Panel data from large international samples of countries are used for the period 1960-1999, with estimates undertaken by econometric methods. The innovation of the present dissertation is the introduction of a dummy variable for the presence of functioning EPZs to measure their effects on economic growth. The analytical results obtained support the contention that the introduction of export processing zones, consistent with the extended theory of endogenous economic growth, positively and significantly influences economic growth.