Dynamic compression enhances pressure-to-pain threshold in elite athlete recovery: exploratory study. J Strength Cond Res 29(5): 1263–1272, 2015—Athlete recovery-adaptation is crucial to the progress and performance of highly trained athletes. The purpose of this study was to assess peristaltic pulse dynamic compression (PPDC) in reducing short-term pressure-to-pain threshold (PPT) among Olympic Training Center athletes after morning training. Muscular tenderness and stiffness are common symptoms of fatigue and exercise-induced muscle microtrauma and edema. Twenty-four highly trained athletes (men = 12 and women = 12) volunteered to participate in this study. The athletes were randomly assigned to experimental (n = 12) and control (n = 12) groups. Pressure-to-pain threshold measurements were conducted with a manual algometer on 3 lower extremity muscles. Experimental group athletes underwent PPDC on both legs through computer-controlled circumferential inflated leggings that used a peristaltic-like pressure pattern from feet to groin. Pressures in each cell were set to factory defaults. Treatment time was 15 minutes. The control group performed the same procedures except that the inflation pump to the leggings was off. The experimental timeline included a morning training session, followed by a PPT pretest, treatment application (PPDC or control), an immediate post-test (PPT), and a delayed post-test (PPT) after the afternoon practice session. Difference score results showed that the experimental group's PPT threshold improved after PPDC treatment immediately and persisted the remainder of the day after afternoon practice. The control group showed no statistical change. We conclude that PPDC is a promising means of accelerating and enhancing recovery after the normal aggressive training that occurs in Olympic and aspiring Olympic athletes.

This study wished to compare the same physiological responses of elite athletes to a typical intermediate term anaerobic capacity track running session with those of standing cycling of similar intensity and duration. Twelve well trained/elite male distance runners completed maximal running, standing cycling and strength testing sessions; and Intermediate Term Anaerobic Capacity Sessions (ITACS) in running and standing cycling; each comprising eight efforts of approximately 30 seconds duration at 90% maximal effort in each mode of activity, separated by 2 minutes rest. The experimental sessions took place from the end of November 1996 to the beginning of March 1997. The subjects were required to attend three maximal experimental sessions, which were performed on separate days and used for baseline data collection. On completing these they participated in both running and standing cycling ITACS, performed on separate days with at least 48 hours between each test protocol. There was complete randomisation of all test protocols. Descriptive statistics were determined for all the variables. Independent t-testing was used to determine if similar temperature and humidity readings were obtained during the maximal testing for each mode of activity. Paired t-testing was used to compare the differences in warmup heart rates between the maximal and ITACS, the differences in peak lactates obtained after each type of ITACS, draw comparisons between heart rate (HR) changes over time during the ITACS and determine if a difference existed between workloads for the two modes of activity. It was also used to draw a comparison between the peak BLa values and ascertain if pre-test creatine kinase (CK) levels were the same for each mode of activity. A repeated measures one way ANOVA was used to determine if workload reduced over time for each type of ITACS. A three way ANOVA with repeated measures on one factor (repetition) was performed on HR response. It was used to determine if there was a difference between the workload/recovery HR response; if workload/recovery HR values increased over the duration of each ITACS; and if the workload/recovery HR response over time was mode specific. A two way ANOVA with repeated measures on one factor (repetition) was performed on blood lactate (BLa) response. It was used to determine if there was a significant interaction between the mode of activity and time, if BLa increased over the duration of each ITACS and if there was an effect of mode on its own on the BLa response. A two way repeated measures ANOVA was used to ascertain whether there was a difference in CK levels between the two modes of activity, with Tukey's multiple comparison tests used in post hoc analyses to show the amount of difference. A linear regression analysis was performed to determine if BLa response was similar across the duration of each type of ITACS. The effects of temperature (22.3 ± 1.2 vs 21.1 ± 0.3 °C, run vs cycle, t = -0.94, n = 12, p = 0.36)) and humidity (57 ±4.2 vs 52 ± 1.7%, run versus cycle, t = -1.04, n = 12, p = 0.31) did not influence any of the results obtained during the ITACS. Nor did differing warmup intensities (as indicated by heart rate - HR) during the maximal (160 ± 5.7 vs 158 ± 3.1 beats per minute (bpm), run vs cycle, t = - 0.45, n = 9, p = 0.66) and ITACS (160 ± 3.6 vs 152 ± 3.1 bpm, run vs cycle, t = -2.81, n = 9, p = 0.02). An equal test preparation was confirmed by the warmup blood lactate (BLa) levels, which were not significantly different between the exercise modes for both the maximal (11.0 ±0.6 vs 11.8 ± 1.0 mmol-l1, run vs cycle, t = 2.26, ii n = 10, p =0.23) and ITACS (4.2 ± 0.7 vs 4.2 ± 0.6 mmol-1 ', run vs cycle, t = 0.27, n = 10, p = 0.796). A significantly higher workload was achieved during the running ITACS as compared to the standing cycling ITACS (105 ± 1.1 vs 89 ±2.9 %, run vs cycle, t = 10.45, n = 12, p<0.0005). The increase in workload/recovery HR response and their changes as each type of ITACS progressed was not mode specific [F(l,40) = 0.94, p > 0.05]. Those subjects who possessed high BLa concentrations performed less work on the cycle ergometer. There was a strong negative relationship for average workloads and BLa accumulation for the standing cycling exercise (Spearmans rho = -0.799, n = 11, p<0.005) suggesting that BLa accumulation was a limiting factor in work production. The increase in BLa levels was not mode specific F(l,20) = 1.36, p > 0.05]. The BLa response was comparatively similar because the rate of increase in BLa accumulation and peak BLa values (19.7 vs 16.9 mmol-l'1, cycle vs run, t = 2.1, n = 11, p = 0.06) were not significantly different between the modes of activity. Mode in conjunction with time affected standing cycling BLa response to a greater extent than running BLa levels [F(4.80) =3.929, p <. 0.05]. Standing cycling BLa concentrations were significantly negatively correlated with knee extension peak torque (Spearmans rho = - 0.771, n = 11, p < 0.01) and total work (Spearmans rho = - 0.802, n = 11, p < 0.01) measurements. In running they were negatively correlated with knee flexion total work measurements (Spearman rho = - 0.685, n = 11, p < 0.05) These findings suggest that BLa accumulation occurs from different muscle fibre recruitment patterns. Less work was performed in isokinetic knee extension following standing cycling as compared to running (2234 ± 68.4 vs 2462 ± 78.9 Nm, t = 2.23, n = 11, p < 0.05) suggesting that standing cycling is more fatiguing on the quadriceps than running. There was no difference in the knee flexion testing (1799 ± 89.6 vs 1785 ± 69.2, cycle vs run, t = 2.23, n = 11, p = 0.96). There was a significant difference in mean creatine kinase (CK) activity between the two modes 24 hours after completing the ITACS (450 ± 73.2 vs 320 ± 46.5 I/U, running vs cycle, F = 6.44, df = 1,17, p < 0.01). There was a significantly greater increase in CK activity and therefore muscle damage, following the running (mean increase of 190 I/U) as compared to the standing cycling session (mean increase of 44.0 I/U). In terms of reducing the risk of injury, achieving a similar cardiovascular response and achieving comparable BLa accumulation (even though mechanism/s of accumulation may be different) standing cycling appears to be is a satisfactory substitute for running during an ITACS. The results of this research strengthen the concept of utilising a simulated mode of activity as a substitute for the primary activity in order to maximise transfer effects, providing there is a careful balance between the specific training and the near specific training. The differing physiological responses between the exercise modes (ie- different muscle fibre recruitment patterns, different workload capacity, different CK measures) suggest that standing cycling cannot act as a total/comprehensive replacement for running. A training study is warranted to further investigate the findings of this research.

<p>Intensified training regimes and increasing competitive pressure make some athletes leave sports with shattered hopes and dreams. A number of these athletes drop out of sports due to burnout, which is characterized by an enduring experience of emotional and physical exhaustion, reduced sense of accomplishment and devaluation of sport participation as a consequence of prolonged chronic stress. Loss of engagement and diminished motivation also characterize burnout. But burnout is more than just a simple stress reaction, as not all athletes who experience stress burn out. Study I investigates the prevalence of burnout among competitive athletes. The number of athletes showing high levels of burnout was found to be between 1 and 9%. The number of athletes suffering from severe burnout was estimated at 1-2%. Contrary to what has been speculated, burnout was not more common in individual sports than in team sports. Study II investigated the burnout process using a case-study approach. It was found that burnout can evolve with different levels of severity, time perspectives and characteristics. There appears to be a relationship between overtraining syndrome and burnout, and the study gave support to the notion that burnout is the most severe outcome on the training fatigue continuum. Early success might lead to high expectations and an inner pressure to train, which in the three cases made the athletes ignore signs of maladaptation. Performance-based self-esteem appears to be a “driving force” in the burnout process. In Study III the burnout experience was investigated using qualitative interviews. Lack of recovery, “too much sports” and high external demands were described as causes of burnout. A stressful situation with multiple demands from sport, school and social relationships leads to a total overload, which has both physiological and psychological consequences. Critical factors were a unidimensional identity, performance-based self-esteem, an inflexible organization and feelings of entrapment. These restraining factors made the athletes remain in sports despite negative outcomes. Thus the three studies indicate that burnout is a serious problem in competitive and elite sports, that restraining factors offer an explanation for why athletes remain in sport despite negative outcomes, and that striving for self-esteem is crucial in the development of burnout.</p>

Studien syftar till att undersöka vilka faktorer som haft betydelse för sex elitidrottares nya karriärval efter avslutad idrottskarriär. Den metod som användes var kvalitativ med inslag av både hermeneutiken och det narrativa synsättet för att få fram respondenternas egna beskrivningar av brytpunkten. Resultatet visar att upplevelsen av karriäravslutet skiljer sig mellan elitidrottare som slutat frivilligt och elitidrottare som slutat ofrivilligt, på grund av mättnad respektive skada. Processen mot att välja en ny karriär beskrevs av samtliga respondenter som svår samtidigt som alla kände sig motiverade inför det nya valet och i efterhand upplevde sin nya roll samt det nya karriärvalet som tillfredsställande. Respondenterna fattade ett praktiskt rationellt beslut utifrån tidigare erfarenheter av yrket, värderingar och känslor vid valet av ny karriär. Före detta elitidrottares karriärval är ett outforskat område inom vägledningsområdet vilket gör studien intressant för vidare forskning inom studie- och yrkesvägledningen. / This study will aim to explore the major important factors that influenced six elite athletes in their new career choices after retirement. The method used was predominantly qualitative, with hermeneutics and narratives added in order to encapsulate the respondents own descriptions of point break. The result shows that the experience of retirement differs between those whom retired wilfully, and those who were forced to; because of injury or lack of motivation. The process to choose a new career was described by all respondents as difficult. However, they all felt motivated in their new choices, and were, ultimately, satisfied. The respondents made a practical rational choice based on earlier experiences of the particular line of work, values and emotional content. The post-retirement careers of elite athletes is a field relatively unexplored within vocational guidance counselling, which makes this study interesting for further development of this field.

Att samtidigt göra en satsning på sin idrott och skolan ställer krav på individen. Dessa krav kan leda till idrottsrelaterad utbrändhet. Att hitta faktorer som påverkar idrottsrelaterad utbrändhet är viktigt för att kunna förebygga och förhindra problemet. Många olika faktorer har visat sig påverka och en faktor som behöver undersökas noggrannare är den sociala faktorn. En sådan social faktor är tränare- aktiv relationen. Syftet var att undersöka om det finns något samband mellan symptom av idrottsrelaterad utbrändhet och den upplevda kvalitén på tränare- aktiv relationen. En enkätundersökning genomfördes av 107 idrottsgymnasieelever (34 tjejer och 73 killar) i åldrarna 15-18 år. Idrottsrelaterad utbrändhet visade sig vara negativt korrelerat med tränare- aktiv relationen. Underkategorin Complementary visade sig vara den som visade starkast samband med idrottsrelaterad utbrändhet. 16 procent av eleverna på skolan upplevde höga symtom. Instruktörer på skolan bör fundera igenom deras relationer med eleverna och hur dessa kan förbättras för att reducera problemet. Idrottsgymnasier borde fundera kring både hur kraven både inom skolan och inom elevernas respektive idrott ser ut under de tre gymnasieåren.

Intensified training regimes and increasing competitive pressure make some athletes leave sports with shattered hopes and dreams. A number of these athletes drop out of sports due to burnout, which is characterized by an enduring experience of emotional and physical exhaustion, reduced sense of accomplishment and devaluation of sport participation as a consequence of prolonged chronic stress. Loss of engagement and diminished motivation also characterize burnout. But burnout is more than just a simple stress reaction, as not all athletes who experience stress burn out. Study I investigates the prevalence of burnout among competitive athletes. The number of athletes showing high levels of burnout was found to be between 1 and 9%. The number of athletes suffering from severe burnout was estimated at 1-2%. Contrary to what has been speculated, burnout was not more common in individual sports than in team sports. Study II investigated the burnout process using a case-study approach. It was found that burnout can evolve with different levels of severity, time perspectives and characteristics. There appears to be a relationship between overtraining syndrome and burnout, and the study gave support to the notion that burnout is the most severe outcome on the training fatigue continuum. Early success might lead to high expectations and an inner pressure to train, which in the three cases made the athletes ignore signs of maladaptation. Performance-based self-esteem appears to be a “driving force” in the burnout process. In Study III the burnout experience was investigated using qualitative interviews. Lack of recovery, “too much sports” and high external demands were described as causes of burnout. A stressful situation with multiple demands from sport, school and social relationships leads to a total overload, which has both physiological and psychological consequences. Critical factors were a unidimensional identity, performance-based self-esteem, an inflexible organization and feelings of entrapment. These restraining factors made the athletes remain in sports despite negative outcomes. Thus the three studies indicate that burnout is a serious problem in competitive and elite sports, that restraining factors offer an explanation for why athletes remain in sport despite negative outcomes, and that striving for self-esteem is crucial in the development of burnout.

Att kunna hantera stress, skador, förväntningar och krav är viktigt i en elitsatsande fotbollsspelares vardag. Kvinnliga fotbollsspelare har i större utsträckning en annan utmaning i att behöva kombinera sin elitsatsning med annan sysselsättning, jämfört med manliga fotbollsspelare. Syftet med detta examensarbete var att beskriva hur kvinnliga fotbollsspelare upplever att elitsatsningen påverkat deras aktivitetsbalans och välbefinnande. Det användes en kvalitativ studiedesign med semistrukturerade intervjuer. Urvalet gjordes genom ett bekvämlighetsurval och en kvalitativ innehållsanalys användes vid databearbetningen. Resultatet visade att kvinnliga elitsatsande fotbollsspelare hade en fullspäckad vardag som krävde planering och struktur för att främja aktivitetsbalans. Vardagen bestod av tydliga rutiner och vanor med arbete/studier följt av träning. Det krävdes annan sysselsättning jämsides med sin elitsatsning för att få ihop det ekonomiskt. Informanterna gjorde en medveten satsning där vila, sömn och träning prioriterades. Uppoffringar var en del av det dagliga livet där familj och vänner ofta blev bortprioriterade. Elitsatsningen innebar höga krav och förväntningar vilket påverkade välbefinnandet både positivt och negativt. Slutsatser var att det fanns faktorer i en kvinnlig elitsatsande fotbollsspelares vardag som påverkade deras aktivitetsbalans och välbefinnande. Detta examensarbete var en första inblick i problemområdet men ytterligare forskning krävs. / Being able to handle stress, injury, expectations and demands is important in the everyday life of an elite football player. Female football players have a greater challenge to combine their elite efforts with other employment, compared with male football players. The purpose of this study was to describe female football players’ experiences of how their elite efforts affect occupational balance and well-being. A qualitative study design with semi-structured interviews was used. Data selection was made by convenience sampling. Data was analysed with a qualitative content analysis. The results showed that elite female football players’ had a demanding everyday life that required planning and structure to promote occupational balance. Their everyday life consisted of clear routines and habits for work/ studies and football practice. It was necessary for the players to have another occupation in addition to their elite efforts, to manage financially. The informants made a conscious effort to prioritize rest, sleep and practice. Sacrifices were part of the daily life where family and friends often became less of a priority. The elite efforts meant high demands and expectations, which affected well-being both negatively and positively. The conclusion was that everyday life of a female elite football player consisted of factors that influenced their occupational balance and well-being. This study was an insight into this problem area but further research is required.

Background: Since athletes are often perceived as unbreakable, their mental health problems might be bypassed or denigrated by their coach, peers or even by the media. However, athletes are as, if not more, susceptible to mental health problems as anyone else. As the media continues to be the primary source of information, the way in which the media portrays mental health problems can affect how people perceive and regard them. In this research, I examined how Finnish elite athletes with mental health problems are portrayed in the Finnish news websites by qualitatively analyzing eight articles of four Finnish athletes, two former and two current. Furthermore, I compared the articles with one another in order to study the eventual differences between each article’s portrayal of the athletes’ mental health problems. Method: This analysis was conducted by applying a narrative discourse schema to the selected eight articles, which enabled me to examine both the structures of the articles as well as the underlying discourses and social context. Results: Nearly all of the articles are framed from the athlete’s point of view in terms of including more citations from the athlete than comments from the journalist. Furthermore, none of the articles regarded mental health problems among athletes in general, but rather portrayed each case as a single incident. Male athletes with a depressive disorder were complimented far more compared to female athletes. Moreover, female athletes eating disorder and anxiety were often associated with appearance and pressure regarding their sports career. Conclusion: The way in which athletes with mental health problems are portrayed in the Finnish news websites can be interpreted in two ways. Firstly, they can be perceived as hopeful recovery stories from the athletes perspective, as they portray how successful athletes can also develop mental health problems and still continue their career. Secondly, by not addressing the problem as a whole nor including any factual information in any of the articles indicates the journalists lack knowledge and/or apathy about the issue, and that it is a difficult subject to portray acceptably.

It is understood that in order for athletes to perform to their potential consistently they must learn to optimally self-regulate their psychological and physiological states. Yet, the process by which this is accomplished is not well understood. The purpose of this doctoral dissertation was to explore the concept of self-regulation in the Olympic athlete population through the use of biofeedback and neurofeedback. To address this purpose, two studies were conducted. Study One (Article 1) used a quantitative methodology to explore the relationship between Olympic athletes’ overall self-regulation ability and world ranking. Fifteen Olympic level athletes underwent a 9-stage psychophysiological stress assessment to determine each athlete’s ability to return to baseline after a stress load was applied. Findings revealed that there was a significant correlation between the athletes’ overall self-regulation ability and their ranking at the world level, meaning the better the overall self-regulation ability of the athlete the better the world ranking. Study Two (Articles 2 and 3) employed a qualitative methodology and explored what and how five Olympic level athletes learned from participating in a 20 session biofeedback and neurofeedback training intervention. Data was collected from post-intervention interviews with the athletes. In Study Two, Olympic athletes perceived that the biofeedback and neurofeedback training intervention assisted them in learning to improve self-awareness and self-regulation of their physical and mental states enabling them to feel more in control during sport performances. Engaging in active learning exercises, receiving real-time formative feedback, and utilization of the intervention exercises in training and competition environments were how athletes perceived they learned to self-regulate. Together, the findings from the two studies highlight the relevance and intricacies of self-regulation in high performance sport. Overall, the present dissertation makes a contribution to the sport psychology literature particularly with regard to our understanding of the use of biofeedback and neurofeedback for enhancing self-regulation with Olympic athletes. Thus, learning to improve self-regulation skills using biofeedback and neurofeedback training should be an integral part of a comprehensive and holistic approach used by sport psychology practitioners in assisting athletes to perform to their potential.

Studier har visat att elitidrottare lider av mental ohälsa i nära samma utsträckning som befolkningen i stort. Samtidigt så pekar data mot att ungdomar i gymnasieåldern och unga vuxna är en grupp som har högre förekomst av självrapporterat nedsatt psykiskt välbefinnande. Svenska gymnasieidrottare är dock en grupp vars psykiska välbefinnande ännu inte utforskats i någon vidare utsträckning. Den här studien undersökte det psykiska välbefinnandet i den här gruppen och eventuella samband mellan nedsatt psykiskt välbefinnande och kön, skador och träningsvolym. 49 elever (25 kvinnor/24 män, medelålder 18.6 år) inskrivna vid sex svenska skidgymnasium med status som riksidrottsgymnasier svarade på en webbaserad enkät som huvudsakligen bestod av instrumentet GHQ-12 (General Health Questionnaire-12). Inga statistiskt signifikanta samband mellan nedsatt psykiskt välbefinnande och kön, skador och träningsvolym observerades. / Studies have shown that elite athletes suffer from mental health problems in nearly the same extent as the population as a whole. Other data indicates that adolescents and young adults are groups that have a higher incidence of self-reported impaired psychological well-being than the general population. Swedish high-school athletes is a group whose mental health has not yet been investigated. This study inquired into the psychological well-being of this group and possible relationships between psychological well-being and gender, injuries and training volume. 49 students (25 females/24 males, mean age 18.6 years) admitted at six swedish skiing high schools with status from the Swedish Sports Confederation as national sports high schools filled out a web-based survey which mainly consisted of the instrument GHQ-12 (General Health Questionnaire-12). No statistically significant relationships between psychological well-being and gender, injuries and training volume were observed.