Este trabalho tem por objetivo propor uma nova metodologia para o cálculo das perdas por segmento do sistema de distribuição. As perdas técnicas são agrupadas nos seguintes segmentos: rede secundária, transformador de distribuição, rede primária e subestação de distribuição. Desenvolveu-se uma metodologia destinada ao cálculo das perdas de forma hierárquica: por exemplo, selecionada uma subestação específica, são calculadas as perdas na subestação e em seus componentes a jusante (redes primárias, transformadores de distribuição, redes secundárias). As perdas, inicialmente, são obtidas por meio de cálculo elétrico para os segmentos envolvidos, com a utilização dos parâmetros da rede, com os dados de faturamento e as curvas de carga típicas por classe de consumidor e seus tipos de atividade. Com os resultados desses cálculos, treinam-se redes neurais que irão calcular as perdas em sistemas genéricos utilizando os parâmetros e topologia do segmento e as curvas típicas de cargas dos consumidores e a energia mensal consumida. O trabalho apresenta um exemplo de aplicação, em sistema de distribuição existente, mostrando os resultados obtidos, e termina apresentando as principais vantagens da metodologia. Finalmente, os resultados obtidos com a nova metodologia são comparados com os resultados obtidos por métodos analíticos de cálculo intensivo. / In this work, a new methodology for the calculation of the energy technical losses in a distribution system, is presented. The proposed approach regards the segmentation of the distribution system, thus, the losses will be obtained for segments such as: the secondary network, distribution transformer, primary network and distribution substation. It was developed a computational system aimed to the calculation of the technical losses within specific distribution networks and usable in a microcomputer. Such a calculation is done in a hierarchical way. For instance, once selected a specific substation it is calculated the losses within the substation and in all the above cited components existing downstream the substation. The energy technical losses are calculated for each segment involved in the distribution system. This is done by using the network\'s recorded data, the energy consumption data and the typical load curves by class of consumer and type of activity developed. The outcome of these calculations are then used to train the neural networks, which in turn will calculate the losses in generic distribution systems where characteristics such as the circuit parameters and topology, the consumer\'s load curves and the monthly energy consumed, are known. By using the energy data available in the supplying points, the total energy billed per month as well as the loss indexes per segment, it will be obtained the total amount of the energy losses in each segment of the system. Likewise, this procedure will enable an evaluation of the non technical losses. The results of a case study related to an existing distribution system and the main advantages of the proposed methodology, are also presented herein. Finally, the results obtained with the new methodology are compared with those obtained through analytical methods.

Este trabalho tem por objetivo apresentar e discutir alguns modelos para cálculo de perdas técnicas e não técnicas em sistemas de distribuição, considerando diversas alternativas em função da disponibilidade de dados. A discussão é de fundamental importância, na medida que o setor elétrico passa a enfrentar novos desafios, tais como o cálculo de redes de baixa tensão com cadastro incompleto e o cálculo de perdas não técnicas com sua respectiva parcela de perdas técnicas. Para o cálculo das perdas em redes de baixa tensão com cadastro incompleto, duas situações são consideradas. Na primeira, a rede é conhecida, porém não se conhece a localização de seus consumidores. Na segunda situação, também a rede é desconhecida. Neste último caso, para superar o problema de ausência de informações, são utilizadas técnicas de classificação para definir um conjunto de padrões de redes típicas e posterior associação de cada rede a um padrão previamente estabelecido. Também são utilizados alguns modelos de distribuição da carga e a consideração de incertezas é contemplada a partir de números difusos. Para calcular as perdas não técnicas com sua respectiva parcela de perdas técnicas, propõe-se um método para corrigir a energia faturada dos consumidores a partir do conhecimento da energia medida e das perdas técnicas calculadas. Uma extensão desse método ainda permite calcular as perdas de forma rápida e sem grandes esforços computacionais (método expedito), partindo do resultados de um cálculo realizado com um método convencional. Todos os modelos propostos são aplicados a redes de distribuição reais. Os resultados obtidos são analisados e comparados a valores de referência e é discutida a aplicabilidade dos modelos, bem como suas respectivas faixas de validade. / This work aims at presenting and discussing some models for calculating technical and non-technical losses in distribution systems. The proposed methods comprise several possibilities depending on the available data. This discussion is very important since the electric sector faces new challenges, such as technical loss estimation in low voltage networks with incomplete data. The evaluation of non-technical losses is also herein discussed. Regarding loss estimation with incomplete data, two conditions are considered. In the first one, the network data is known, but the customers location are unavailable. In the second one, the network data is not completely known as well. In this latter condition, in order to overcome the lack of sufficient data, classification techniques are used to establish a set of typical network patterns and to associate each network to a previously established pattern. Some load distribution models are also used and the uncertainties are considered by the use of fuzzy sets. In order to estimate the non-technical losses and their related technical losses, a method to adjust the billed energy in all customers is proposed. This is accomplished by using the computed technical losses and the measured energy at the substation site. This method also makes possible the assessment of technical losses in a quick way with a low computational effort (fast method). Such method is accomplished by using the results of a calculation previously performed using the conventional method. All the proposed methods are applied to real distribution networks. The obtained results are discussed and compared to the results obtained with the conventional method. The applicability of each model is also discussed.

In the last decades, the focus of internal combustion engine development has moved towards more efficient and less pollutant engines. In a Diesel engine, approximately 30-40% of the energy provided by combustion is lost through the exhaust gases. The exhaust gases are hot and therefore rich of energy. Some of this energy can be recovered by recycling the exhaust gases into turbocharger. However, the energy losses in the exhaust port are highly undesired and the mechanisms driving the total pressure losses in the exhaust manifold not fully understood. Moreover, the efficiency of the turbine is highly dependent on the upstream flow conditions. Thus, a numerical study of the flow in the exhaust port geometry of a Scania heavy-duty Diesel engine is carried out mainly by using the Large Eddy Simulation (LES) approach. The purpose is to characterize the flow in the exhaust port, analyze and identify the sources of the total pressure losses. Unsteady Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes (URANS) simulation results are included for comparison purposes. The calculations are performed with fixed valve and stationary boundary conditions for which experimental data are available. The simulations include a verification study of the solver using different grid resolutions and different valve lift states. The calculated numerical data are compared to existent measured pressure loss data. The results show that even global parameters like total pressure losses are predicted better by LES than by URANS. The complex three-dimensional flow structures generated in the flow field are qualitatively assessed through visualization and analyzed by statistical means. The near valve region is a major source of losses. Due to the presence of the valve, an annular, jet-like flow structure is formed where the high-velocity flow follows the valve stem into the port. Flow separation occurs immediately downstream of the valve seat on the walls of the port and also on the surface of the valve body. Strong longitudinal, non-stationary secondary flow structures (i.e. in the plane normal to the main flow direction) are observed in the exhaust manifold. Such structures can degrade the efficiency of a possible turbine of a turbocharger located downstream on the exhaust manifold. The effect of the valve and piston motion has also been studied by the Large Eddy Simulation (LES) approach. Within the exhaust process, the valves open while the piston continues moving in the combustion chamber. This process is often analyzed modeling the piston and valves at fixed locations, but conserving the total mass flow. Using advanced methods, this process can be simulated numerically in a more accurate manner. Based on LES data, the discharge coefficients are calculated following the strict definition. The results show that the discharge coefficient can be overestimated (about 20 %) when using simplified experiments, e. g. flow bench. Simple cases using fixed positions for valve and piston are contrasted with cases which consider the motion of piston and/or valves. The overall flow characteristics are compared within the cases. The comparison shows it is impossible to rebuild the dynamic flow field with the simplification with fixed valves. It is better to employ LES to simulate the dynamic flow and associated losses with valve and piston motion. / <p>QC 20131204</p>

Dans le domaine de l'aéronautique, les concepts basés sur l’usage étendu de l'électricité dans les aéronefs plus électriques (MEA) et même tout électriques (AEA) font appel à des actionneurs électromécaniques (EMA) en replacement des actionneurs servo-hydrauliques conventionnels (HSA). Lorsque les EMA sont utilisés pour des applications d'actionnement critique comme les commandes de vol, certains problèmes spécifiques liés à l’équilibre thermique, l'inertie réfléchie, le mouvement parasite dû aux élasticités structurelles, la réponse aux fautes (grippage et rupture) et la synchronisation d’EMA actifs sur charges indépendantes ne peuvent être ignorés. La simulation apporte un support indéniable à la conception pour l’évaluation et la validation des concepts. A cet effet, il est nécessaire de développer des prototypes virtuels des EMA avec une vision système et de façon structurée pour répondre aux besoins des ingénieurs. Malheureusement, les phénomènes physiques qui apparaissent dans les EMA sont multidisciplinaires, couplés et fortement non linéaires. De nombreux logiciels commerciaux de simulation système multi-domaines sont désormais disponibles. Cependant, le processus de modélisation et les besoins des ingénieurs sont rarement pris en compte selon une vision globale, en raison du manque d'approches scientifiques pour la définition d’architectures, la modélisation incrémentale et l’amélioration de l’implémentation numérique des modèles. Dans cette thèse, le prototypage virtuel de l'EMA est adressé en utilisant le formalisme Bond-Graph. De nouvelles approches sont proposées pour permettre la modélisation incrémentale de l'EMA en vue de fournir des modèles pour la synthèse de la commande, l’évaluation de la consommation d'énergie, l'analyse thermique, le calcul des forces de réaction, la simulation de la pollution du réseau d'alimentation électrique, la réponse aux fautes et l'influence de la température. L’intérêt des modèles proposés est illustré sur l’exemple de la synchronisation de position de deux EMA actionnant des charges indépendantes. / In the aerospace field, the concepts based on extended use of electricity in “More Electric Aircraft” (MEA) and even “All Electric Aircraft” (AEA), involve electromechanical actuators (EMAs) to replace conventional hydraulic servo actuators (HSAs). When EMAs are used for safety-critical actuation applications like flight controls, some specific issues related to thermal balance, reflected inertia, parasitic motion due to compliance, response to failure (jamming and free-run) and synchronization of EMAs driving independent loads cannot be ignored. The simulation-aided design process can efficiently support the assessment and validation of the concepts fixing these issues. For that, virtual prototypes of EMAs at system-level have to be developed in a structured way that meets the engineers’ needs. Unfortunately, the physical effects governing the EMAs behavior are multidisciplinary, coupled and highly nonlinear. Although numerous multi-domain and system-level simulation packages are now available in the market of simulation software, the modelling process and the engineers’ needs are rarely addressed as a whole because of lack of scientific approaches for model-based architecting, multi-purpose incremental modelling and model implementation for efficient numerical simulation. In this thesis, the virtual prototyping of EMAs is addressed using the Bond-Graph formalism. New approaches are proposed to enable incremental modelling of EMAs that provides models supporting control design, energy consumption and thermal analysis, calculation of reaction forces, power network pollution simulation, prediction of response to faults and influence of temperature. The case of preliminary design of EMAs position synchronization is used to highlight the interests and advantages of the proposed process and models of EMAs.

This research delves into the complex interplay between wind turbine operations and bat conservation efforts, focusing on mitigating bat mortality caused by wind turbines in France. Despite comprehensive legal safeguards and conservation measures, bat fatalities remain a pressing concern, necessitating innovative solutions to reconcile environmental protection with energy production. The problem statement revolves around the challenge of optimising bat curtailment plans to minimise bat mortality while mitigating energy losses. With over 80% of bat species in France affected by wind turbine collisions, the urgency of this issue is underscored by the significant ecological implications and regulatory imperatives. Despite the existence of curtailment plans, there is a lack of comprehensive understanding regarding their effectiveness and potential trade-offs. This problem warrants a Master’s thesis project due to its multifaceted nature and practical implications. It requires a nuanced understanding of bat behaviours, wind turbine operations, and regulatory frameworks, making it both intellectually stimulating and socially relevant. Previous efforts have largely focused on static curtailment plans, leaving room for exploration of dynamic approaches and optimisation strategies. The methodology employed in this study involves the development of a Power BI tool and key performance indicators (KPIs) to evaluate different curtailment plans. Through comparative analysis, insights are gained into the efficacy of static versus dynamic curtailment plans, as well as the influence of weather conditions, such as rain, on curtailment decisions. Additionally, sensitivityanalysis is conducted to identify the most influential parameters and optimise curtailment plans accordingly. The key results of this study demonstrate the superiority of dynamic curtailment plans in reducing energy losses while maintaining sufficient protection for bat activity (higher than the 90% protection rate required by law) compared to static approaches (50% reduction in losses over an entire curtailment season). Insights gleaned from sensitivity analysis highlight the critical parameters influencing energy losses, informing targeted modifications to curtailment plans. Furthermore, the study underscores the importance of considering continuous variables, such as humidity, and site-specific factors, such as sunrise and sunset times, for more precise conservation strategies. The implications of this research extend beyond academia, informing policy-making and industry practices in wind energy and biodiversity conservation. By optimizing curtailment plans, stakeholders can achieve a balance between environmental protection and renewable energy generation, paving the way for sustainable development. Future research avenues include refining curtailment strategies based on continuous variables and conducting field studies to validate findings across diverse wind farm locations. / Denna forskning utforskar det komplexa samspel mellan vindkraftverkens drift och fladdermusbevarande insatser, med fokus på att mildra fladdermusdödlighet orsakad av vindkraftverk i Frankrike. Trots omfattande lagliga skydd och bevarandeåtgärder förblir fladdermusdödsfall ett påtagligt bekymmer, vilket kräver innovativa lösningar för att förena miljöskydd med energiproduktion. Problemformuleringen kretsar kring utmaningen att optimera fladdermusbegränsningsplaner för att minimera fladdermusdödlighet samtidigt som energiförluster mildras. Med över 80% av fladdermusarterna i Frankrike påverkade av kollisioner med vindkraftverk, understryks brådskan i detta ärende av dess betydande ekologiska konsekvenser och reglerande krav. Trots att begränsningsplaner existerar, finns det en brist på en heltäckande förståelse för deras effektivitet och potentiella avvägningar. Detta problem motiverar ett magisterprojekt på grund av dess mångfacetterade natur och praktiska konsekvenser. Det kräver en nyanserad förståelse för fladdermusars beteenden, vindkraftverks drift och reglerande ramar, vilket gör det både intellektuellt stimulerande och socialt relevant. Tidigare insatser har i stor utsträckning fokuserat på statiska begränsningsplaner och lämnat utrymme för utforskning av dynamiska tillvägagångssätt och optimeringsstrategier. Metoden som används i denna studie innefattar utvecklingen av ett Power BI-verktyg och nyckelprestationsindikatorer för att utvärdera olika begränsningsplaner. Genom jämförande analys får man insikter om effektiviteten hos statiska jämfört med dynamiska begränsningsplaner, samt påverkan av väderförhållanden, såsom regn, på begränsningsbeslut. Dessutom genomförs känslighetsanalys för att identifiera de mest inflytelserika parametrarna och optimera begränsningsplanerna därefter. De viktigaste resultaten av denna studie visar överlägsenheten hos dynamiska begränsningsplaner när det gäller att minska energiförluster samtidigt som tillräckligt skydd för fladdermusaktivitet bibehålls (högre än den 90% skyddsnivå som krävs enligt lag) jämfört med statiska metoder (50% minskning av förluster under en hel begränsningssäsong). Insikter från känslighetsanalysen belyser de kritiska parametrarna som påverkar energiförluster och ger vägledning för målinriktade modifieringar av begränsningsplaner. Dessutom betonar studien vikten av att beakta kontinuerliga variabler, såsom luftfuktighet, och platsspecifika faktorer, såsom soluppgångs- och solnedgångstider, för mer precisa bevarandestrategier. Denna forsknings betydelse sträcker sig bortom akademin och informerar beslutsfattande inom politik och branschpraxis inom vindenergi och biologisk mångfaldsbevarande. Genom att optimera begränsningsplaner kan intressenter uppnå en balans mellan miljöskydd och förnybar energiproduktion, vilket banar väg för hållbar utveckling. Framtida forskningsvägar inkluderar att förädla begränsningsstrategier baserade på kontinuerliga variabler och att genomföra fältstudier för att validera resultat på olika vindkraftsplatser.

This study focusses on modelling important aspects of the evolution of pulsar wind nebulae using two different approaches. The first uses a hydrodynamic model to simulate the morphological evolution of a spherically-symmetric composite supernova remnant that is expanding into a homogeneous interstellar medium. In order to extend this model, a magnetic field is included in a kinematic fashion, implying that the reaction of the fluid on the magnetic field is taken into account, while neglecting any counter-reaction of the field on the fluid. This approach is valid provided that the ratio of electromagnetic to particle energy in the nebula is small, or equivalently, for a large plasma β environment. This model therefore allows one to not only calculate the evolution of the convection velocity but also, for example, the evolution of the average magnetic field. The second part of this study focusses on calculating the evolution of the energy spectra of the particles in the nebula using a number of particle evolution models. The first of these is a spatially independent temporal evolution model, similar to the models that can be found in the literature. While spatially independent models are useful, a large part of this study is devoted to developing spatially dependent models based on the Fokker-Planck transport equation. Two such models are developed, the first being a spherically-symmetric model that includes the processes of convection, diffusion, adiabatic losses, as well as the non-thermal energy loss processes of synchrotron radiation and inverse Compton scattering. As the magnetic field geometry can lead to the additional transport process of drift, the previous model is extended to an axisymmetric geometry, thereby allowing one to also include this process. / PhD (Space Physics), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

I Sverige finns cirka 2000 vattenkraftverk men endast 10 procent har någon form av omlöp eller annan lösning (Risinger, 2012). Nya, strängare regler håller nu på att införas. Sedan 2014 finns en gemensam strategi från Energimyndigheten och Havs- och vattenmyndigheten för åtgärder i svensk vattenkraft (Risinger, 2014). En godkänd fiskväg är ett av kraven.Särskilt den småskaliga vattenkraften (energitillförsel under 10 MWh enligt Risinger (2012)) drabbas. Deras intäkter står många gånger i proportion till energiproduktionen och därmed saknas ofta de ekonomiska förutsättningarna för en fiskväg. Vidare kommer en del av vattnet, och därmed potentiella inkomster, att gå förlorade. Den här undersökningen syftar till att utröna vad ett omlöp får för konsekvenser i form av effektförluster. Det är naturligtvis omöjligt att komma fram till ett universellt svar. Istället mäts förlusterna hos ett specifikt mindre verk som redan har ett omlöp: Åby vattenkraftverk som ägs och drivs av Växjö kommun. Metoden som används är traversering i kombination med hydroskopisk flygel. Sedan tidigare finns beräknade värden från kommunen för flödet i omlöpet. Dessa jämförs med undersökningens uppmätta värden. Undersökningen visar att vid normalt vattenstånd (165,13 MÖH) flödar 167 ± 10 l/s vatten genom omlöpet. Detta är ett 70 l/s större flöde i jämförelse med kommunens beräknade värde. Förklaringar till den skillnaden ges av mätfel då djupet mättes och att inloppet hade byggts om mellan kommunens beräkningar och utförda mätningar. Även den formel som användes då de beräknade värdena togs fram föreslås som en tänkbar felkälla. 167 ± 10 l/s innebär ett bortfall om 4,2 ± 0,3 kW potentiell effekt. / There are around 2000 hydropower plants in Sweden, but only 10 percent of them has a bio channel, fishway or equivalent solution (Risinger 2012). New, more strict rules are now about to be introduced. Since 2014 there is a mutual strategy from the two Swedish authorities ”Energimyndigheten” and ”Havs- och vattenmyndigheten”, which demands multiple actions from Swedish hydropower. (Risinger, 2014). An approved fishway is one of these.The small-scale hydropower plants (plants who produce less than 10 MWh according to Risinger (2012)) are especially affected from this. Their income is proportional to their production and therefore they’ll usually lack the economical ability to build a fishway. Furthermore, a part of the streaming water (which otherwise would equal income) will get lost. This study aims to decide the loss of effect a fishway causes. Of course, it is impossible to derive a universal answer. Instead the losses are measured at a specific smaller plant that already has a fishway: Åby hydropower plant that is owned and operated by Växjö municipality. Method being used is traversing in combination with a turbine flow meter. There are already calculated flows made by the municipality. These values will be compared with the measured values. The study shows that at a normal water level (165,13 m.a.sl) 167 ± 10 l/s of water is streaming through the fishway. This is a 70 l/s bigger flow in comparison with the municipality’s calculations. An explanation to this difference is given by measurement errors when the depth was measured, that the intake had been modified between when the calculations was being made and when the study’s measurements took place. Also, the formula being used for the calculated values is proposed as a possible source of error. 167 ± 10 l/s will result in a loss of 4,2 ± 0,3 kW potential effect.

This thesis has been carried out on behalf of IV Produkt AB and intends to set an average ratio of thermal energy losses in apartment buildings that were built during the 1960-1990. This shall be derived by analyzing the total district energy consumption that has been divided into three parts: heat energy losses (the actual heating requirements), the heating of domestic hot water and heating energy consumption for the controlled ventilation. Three different residential areas that were built during the years 1962-1966 and one that was built in 1993 has been analyzed. All residential areas are located in Växjö urban and contains between four and six apartment buildings. The analyzed objects have a mechanical exhaust ventilation systems and district heating as the heating method. No own laboratory work or experiments have been done in this thesis, the calculations have been done on the basis of parameters from VEAB, interviews with property managers, and literature studies. By calculations, we have got a result that is reported in Chapter 6. The result is given as a thermal energy loss as a percentage of the total heat consumption. In this thesis there has also been a review of the rules on requirements for the specific energy consumptions in buildings, indoor environment and indoor temperature from the National Board of Housing and the National Board of Health and Welfare.

The transport of cosmic rays in the heliosphere is studied by making use of a newly developed modulation model. This model employes stochastic differential equations to numerically solve the relevant transport equation, making use of this approach’s numerical advantages as well as the opportunity to extract additional information regarding cosmic ray transport and the processes responsible for it. The propagation times and energy losses of galactic electrons and protons are calculated for different drift cycles. It is confirmed that protons and electrons lose the same amount of rigidity when they experience the same transport processes. These particles spend more time in the heliosphere, and also lose more energy, in the drift cycle where they drift towards Earth mainly along the heliospheric current sheet. The propagation times of galactic protons from the heliopause to Earth are calculated for increasing heliospheric tilt angles and it is found that current sheet drift becomes less effective with increasing solar activity. Comparing calculated propagation times of Jovian electrons with observations, the transport parameters are constrained to find that 50% of 6 MeV electrons measured at Earth are of Jovian origin. Charge-sign dependent modulation is modelled by simulating the proton to anti-proton ratio at Earth and comparing the results to recent PAMELA observations. A hybrid cosmic ray modulation model is constructed by coupling the numerical modulation model to the heliospheric environment as simulated by a magneto-hydrodynamic model. Using this model, it is shown that cosmic ray modulation persists beyond the heliopause. The level of modulation in this region is found to exhibit solar cycle related changes and, more importantly, is independent of the magnitude of the individual diffusion coefficients, but is rather determined by the ratio of parallel to perpendicular diffusion. / PhD (Space Physics), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013

This study focusses on modelling important aspects of the evolution of pulsar wind nebulae using two different approaches. The first uses a hydrodynamic model to simulate the morphological evolution of a spherically-symmetric composite supernova remnant that is expanding into a homogeneous interstellar medium. In order to extend this model, a magnetic field is included in a kinematic fashion, implying that the reaction of the fluid on the magnetic field is taken into account, while neglecting any counter-reaction of the field on the fluid. This approach is valid provided that the ratio of electromagnetic to particle energy in the nebula is small, or equivalently, for a large plasma β environment. This model therefore allows one to not only calculate the evolution of the convection velocity but also, for example, the evolution of the average magnetic field. The second part of this study focusses on calculating the evolution of the energy spectra of the particles in the nebula using a number of particle evolution models. The first of these is a spatially independent temporal evolution model, similar to the models that can be found in the literature. While spatially independent models are useful, a large part of this study is devoted to developing spatially dependent models based on the Fokker-Planck transport equation. Two such models are developed, the first being a spherically-symmetric model that includes the processes of convection, diffusion, adiabatic losses, as well as the non-thermal energy loss processes of synchrotron radiation and inverse Compton scattering. As the magnetic field geometry can lead to the additional transport process of drift, the previous model is extended to an axisymmetric geometry, thereby allowing one to also include this process. / PhD (Space Physics), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014