<p>Promoting sustainable consumption is critical to meet the United Nation’s Sustainable Development Goals. Food systems can cause considerable environmental impacts, which are exacerbated by the rapidly increasing global population and urbanization. Policy makers are seeking strategies to promote sustainable food consumption to reduce food-related environmental footprints. However, literature assessing environmental implications of food consumption has several gaps: first, studies using national average diets or one-day dietary recall data are likely to neglect the heterogeneous food purchasing patterns in different households and over longer time spans; second, few studies have considered reducing the overall food-emissions-water-land (FEWL) impacts and the FEWL impact reduction potentials have not been fully examined due to lack of considering changing consumption patterns of food items within food groups. Additionally, knowing the environmental impacts of food consumption is only the first step towards sustainable consumption. Providing the information to consumers to guide their decision making is also critical. Ecolabels are increasingly used to inform consumers about the environmental performance of products. However, the effectiveness of ecolabels is unclear because methods used in existing studies may not show consumers’ naturalistic behavior.</p> <p> </p> <p>This dissertation aims to address these research gaps to provide better understanding of the reduction potentials and trade-offs of food environmental impacts, and the effectiveness of ecolabels to facilitate consumer decision making for sustainable consumption. To achieve the objective, a variety of models and methods are used: (1) detailed food purchasing records from 57,578 U.S. households were analyzed and a process-based life cycle assessment (LCA) model is developed to evaluate the food carbon emissions and identify reduction pathways; (2) the LCA model was then expanded to also quantify food-related blue water footprint and land footprint. The FEWL impact reduction potentials were evaluated in two dietary change scenarios: (a) only adjusting intake in each food group to the recommended amount and (b) in addition to adjusting food group intake amount, changing consumption patterns to shift towards the food item that minimizes the overall FEWL impacts within each group). A food-item level analysis was also conducted to examine the FEWL impact trade-offs associated with food item substitutions; and (3) survey and attention data were collected from 156 participants in a naturalistic shopping environment using eye tracking glasses to evaluate the effectiveness of ecolabels on informing consumers’ product selection for sustainable consumption. </p> <p> </p> <p>By assessing the environmental impacts of food consumption and the effectiveness of ecolabels, this dissertation proposed pathways to reduce food-related environmental impacts (i.e., through identifying target households and food groups for impact reduction) and strategies to improve ecolabels’ effectiveness in consumers’ decision making. The results can provide insights to policy makers to promote sustainable consumption. </p>

M. Tech. (Department of Business Administration, Faculty of Management Sciences), Vaal University of Technology. / South African government departments, through the relevant executing authority, are required to develop strategic plans in terms of the Public Service Amendment Act (Act No. 30 of 2007) and Public Finance Management Amendment Act (Act No. 29 of 1999). In terms of Treasury Regulation, 2005 section 6, the government departments are further required to comply with budgetary requirements. The key question in this research was to what extent is the strategic planning process aligned to the budgeting process. In light of the research question, the research objective was to investigate the alignment of the strategic planning and budgeting processes in the selected national government departments. In order to achieve the aforementioned research objective, structured questionnaires were distributed to 300 senior managers in the selected government departments of which 203 were completed and retrieved. The government departments that participated in the study were selected using the non-probability convenient sampling technique. A quantitative approach was followed, in which case a survey was used to garner data, which were analysed using statistical analytical methods, such as the means, standard deviations, exploratory factor analysis, correlation analysis and regression analysis. The five factors of strategic planning were extracted from the strategic planning questionnaire data and were coined strategic analysis and assessment (SAA), environmental impact assessment (EIA), goal setting (GS), responsibilities and resource allocation (RRA), and information system (IS). Correlation analysis indicated that there was a positive relationship between the five factors of the strategic planning process and the budgeting process. The regression analysis results confirmed the existence of a predictive relationship between the five factors of strategic planning and the budgeting process. The conclusion from this finding confirmed the alignment of strategic planning with the budgeting process in the selected national government departments. The internal consistency of the measuring instrument was tested by means of Cronbach’s alpha coefficient, while its validity was measured using face validity, content validity, construct validity, convergent validity and predictive validity. In spite of the positive correlation and regression analyses, recommendations were made to improve the strategic planning and budgeting processes.

[ES] La Evaluación Ambiental Estratégica (EAE) proporciona el marco para la articulación de los proyectos de forma coherente y respetuosa con el medio ambiente, condiciones sociales, políticas y económicas (Arce y Gullón, 2000) y aunque comúnmente se le conoce a la EAE como una herramienta, esta representa un proceso que puede mejorar la toma de decisiones y propiciar el desarrollo sostenible (Bidstrup y Hansen, 2014). El análisis de alternativas es una de las áreas más débiles de la EAE, debido a que no se ha investigado suficientemente qué funciona y qué no en el desarrollo, evaluación y selección de alternativas. Estas investigaciones deben incluir enfoques sistemáticos para la identificación y el desarrollo de alternativas, para involucrar plenamente a las partes interesadas en su definición y evaluación, y proporcionar detalles suficientes al documentar el proceso de la selección (González et al., 2018). A estas debilidades se añade la dificultad de desarrollar una metodología que sea adaptable a diferentes con-textos. Estos condicionantes han encauzado la construcción de la metodología desarrollada en esta tesis y así, lograr minimizar estas brechas, planteando un método analítico, simple y flexible. La metodología denominada "Índice de Selección de Alternativas Estratégicas Ambientales (ISAEA) y sus incertidumbres", parte de la utilización de indicadores simples construidos en base a las metas que se plantean en el instrumento evaluado en la EAE. Al construir los indicadores partiendo de los criterios de los propios objetivos o metas del Plan, Proyecto o Programa (PPP), se disminuye la complejidad y ambigüedad que típicamente existe en la construcción y/o selección de indicadores ambientales, pues queda claro la dirección que debe seguirse en la construcción del indicador. Los criterios de construcción permiten optimizar la calidad del indicador, ya que el mismo describe el objetivo y, por ende, se manejan indicadores que son los adecuados para ese PPP en particular, es decir, adaptado al contexto preciso del PPP. El ISAEA se complementa con un análisis de incertidumbre, que ofrece al tomador de decisiones herramientas completas para proceder a seleccionar con información cuantitativa, la alternativa que más conveniente para el PPP estudiado. De este modo, la metodología propuesta proporciona un índice que representa en qué medida se acerca la alternativa a la meta planteada, aportando además una adaptación de los análisis de incertidumbre al uso de indicadores compuestos. La experiencia de la aplicación de esta metodología en ambos de sus componentes principales, el ISAEA y el análisis de incertidumbre, deja de manifiesto la importancia de la cooperación abierta de la entidad promotora del PPP para garantizar el flujo de información y más importante aún, de información confiable. Tras el desarrollo de la presente investigación se concluye que la metodología desarrollada aporta una herramienta valiosa, que puede ser utilizada de forma simple y a la vez permite reflejar las circunstancias propias del PPP. A la vez, la metodología ofrece resultados en un lenguaje matemático llano, fácilmente entendible para los tomadores de decisiones. La metodología que se aporta en esta investigación doctoral llega a minimizar una brecha en la temática de selección de alternativas en la EAE, ya que se basa en información cuantitativa y a la vez ha asumido un desafío pendiente en evaluaciones ambientales al incorporar el análisis de incertidumbre como un criterio de acompañamiento al ISAEA, que permite realizar una selección de alternativas estratégicas en base a criterios científicos. / [CA] L'Avaluació Ambiental Estratègica (AAE) proporciona el marc per a l'articulació dels projectes de forma coherent i respectuosa amb el medi ambient, condicions socials, polítiques i econòmiques (Arce i Gullón, 2000) i encara que comunament se li coneix a la AAE com una eina, aquesta representa un procés que pot millorar la presa de decisions i propiciar el desenvolupament sostenible (Bidstrup i Hansen, 2014). L'anàlisi d'alternatives és una de les àrees més febles de la AAE, pel fet que no s'ha investigat prou què funciona i què no en el desenvolupament, avaluació i selecció d'alternatives. Aquestes investigacions han d'incloure enfocaments sistemàtics per a la identificació i el desenvolupament d'alternatives, per involucrar plenament a les parts interessades en la seva definició i avaluació, i proporcionar detalls suficients al documentar el procés de la selecció (González et al., 2018). A aquestes debilitats s'afegeix la dificultat de desenvolupar una metodologia que sigui adaptable a diferents contextos. Aquests condicionants han canalitzat la construcció de la metodologia desenvolupada en aquesta tesi i així, aconseguir minimitzar aquestes bretxes, plantejant un mètode analític, simple i flexible. La metodologia anomenada "Índex de Selecció d'Alternatives Estratègiques Ambientals (ISAEA) i les seves incerteses", part de la utilització de indicadors simples construïts en base a les metes que es plantegen en el instrument avaluat en l'AAE. Al construir els indicadors partint dels criteris dels propis objectius o metes de el Pla, Projecte o Programa (PPP), es disminueix la complexitat i ambigüitat que típicament existeix en la construcció i/o selecció d'indicadors ambientals, ja que queda clar la direcció que ha de seguirse en la construcció de l'indicador. Els criteris de construcció permeten optimitzar la qualitat de l'indicador, ja que el mateix descriu el objectiu i, per tant, es manegen indicadors que són els adequats per a aquest PPP en particular, és a dir, adaptat al context precís de l'PPP. L'ISAEA es complementa amb una anàlisi d'incertesa, que ofereix al prenedor de decisions eines completes per a procedir a seleccionar amb informació quantitativa, l'alternativa que més convenient per al PPP estudiat. D'aquesta manera, la metodologia proposada proporciona un índex que representa en quina mesura s'acosta l'alternativa a la meta plantejada, aportant a més una adaptació de les anàlisis d'incertesa a l'ús d'indicadors com-llocs. L'experiència de l'aplicació d'aquesta metodologia en tots dos dels seus components principals, l'ISAEA i l'anàlisi d'incertesa, deixa de manifest la importància de la cooperació oberta de l'entitat promotora de l'PPP per garantir el flux d'informació i, més important encara, d'informació ambfiable. Després de concloure la present investigació queda demostrat que la metodologia desenvolupada aporta una eina valuosa, que pot ser utilitzada de forma simple i alhora permet reflectir les circumstàncies pròpies de l'PPP. Alhora, la metodologia ofereix resultats en un llenguatge matemàtic pla, fàcilment comprensible per als prenedors de decisions. La metodologia que s'aporta en aquesta tesi doctoral arriba a minimitzar una bretxa en la temàtica de selecció d'alternatives a l'EAE, ja que es basa en informació quantitativa i alhora ha assumit un repte pendent en avaluacions ambientals a l'incorporar el anàlisi d'incertesa com un criteri d'acompanyament a l'ISAEA, que permet realitzar una selecció d'alternatives estratègiques en base a criteris científics / [EN] Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) provides the framework for the articulation of projects in a coherent and respectful way with the environment, social, political and economic conditions (Arce and Gullón, 2000). Although SEA is commonly known as a tool, it represents a process that can improve decision-making and promote sustainable development (Bidstrup and Hansen, 2014). The analysis of alternatives is one of the weakest areas of SEA, because what works and what does not in the development, evaluation and selection of alternatives has not been sufficiently investigated. These investigations should include systematic ap-proaches for the identification and development of alternatives, to fully involve stake-holders in their definition and evaluation, and provide sufficient detail when documenting the selection process (González et al., 2018). Besides these weaknesses, the difficulty of developing a methodology that is adaptable to different contexts appears. These conditioning factors have guided the construction of the methodology developed in this thesis and thus, manage to minimize these gaps, proposing an analytical, simple and flexible method. The methodology called "Selection Index for Strategic Environmental Alternatives (ISAEA) and its uncertainties", starts from the use of simple indicators built on the basis of the goals set out in the instrument evaluated by the SEA. By constructing the indicators based on the criteria of the objectives or goals of the Plan, Project or Program (PPP), the complexity and ambiguity that typically exists in the construction and/or selection of environmental indicators is reduced, since the direction to be followed in the construction of the indicator. The construction criteria allow optimizing the quality of the indicator, since it describes the objective and, therefore, indicators are used that are appropriate for that particular PPP, that is, adapted to the precise context of each PPP. The ISAEA is complemented with an uncertainty analysis, which offers the decision maker complete tools to proceed to select with quantitative information, the most convenient alternative for the PPP studied. Therefore, the proposed methodology provides an index that represents to what extent the alternative approaches the proposed goal, also providing an adaptation of the uncertainty analyzes to the use of composite indicators. The experience of applying this methodology in both of its main components, the ISAEA and the uncertainty analysis, shows the importance of the open cooperation of the PPP promoter to guarantee the flow of information and, more importantly, reliable information. After the development of this research, it is concluded that the developed methodology provides a valuable tool, which can be used in a simple way while allowing reflecting the circumstances of the PPP. At the same time, the methodology offers results in plain mathematical language, easily understood by decision makers. The methodology provided in this doctoral research minimizes a gap in the subject of selecting alternatives in SEA, since it is based on quantitative information and at the same time has assumed a pending challenge in environmental evaluations by incorporating the uncertainty analysis as an accompanying criterion to the ISAEA, which allows a selection of strategic alternatives based on scientific criteria. / González González, RL. (2022). Metodología analítica para el análisis de alternativas en la evaluación ambiental estratégica y sus incertidumbres en la toma de decisiones [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/183152

The study was undertaken to investigate the following: limiting factors faced by the developers in complying with the EIA conditions and to determine whether the various developers comply with the conditions. The study was undertaken by use of questionnaires, site visits, meetings, photographs, group interviews. Trained fields assistants were also used to administer the questionnaires in order to collect data. Data from two sites were collected between 2012 and 2014 and were intentionally collected in order to provide information regarding the implementation of mitigation measures. The collected data was subjected to SAS (statistical software). Chi-square test for independence was performed in order to compare the differences (Snedecor & Cocharen, 1978) between the two sites. Based on the results of the study, it is therefore recommended that competent authorities should consider drafting and supplying follow-up guidelines and these guidelines should also apply to all the relevant role players involved. / Environmental Sciences / M. Sc. (Environmental Management)

Os Organismos Geneticamente Modificados (OGM) surgiram há poucos anos e estão sendo discutidos por toda a comunidade científica por ter implicações ambientais e na saúde pública. Por ser um tema vasto, foi estudado apenas a liberação para o plantio comercial dos OGM, mostrando suas vantagens e desvantagens. Neste trabalho são apresentados vários dados das plantações comerciais dos OGM no Brasil e no restante do mundo, mostrando o aumento do uso destes organismos na agricultura mundial. Esta dissertação apresenta um breve histórico da liberação para o plantio comercial dos OGM no Brasil e os seus aspectos legais. Foram pesquisados os aspectos legais para essa liberação, levando em conta a necessidade de ser feito o Estudo de Impacto Ambiental (EIA), que é um instrumento de aplicação do Princípio da Precaução existente no ordenamento jurídico brasileiro, do qual a Avaliação de Impacto Ambiental (AIA) é uma de suas ferramentas. Nesse contexto foi estudada a legislação brasileira sobre o meio ambiente e sobre os OGM. Para se decidir quais são os melhores métodos de AIA, para liberação comercial do plantio dos OGM, de acordo com as exigências legais, foi feita uma pesquisa revisando esses métodos. Foi verificado para cada Método se ele apresenta características de identificar satisfatoriamente os impactos ambientais em relação aos seus efeitos, espaço e tempo. Sabendo-se quais as exigências de avaliação de impacto necessárias para a liberação do plantio dos OGM foi possível identificar as metodologias de AIA mais indicadas para o caso. Concluiu-se que os métodos mais indicados para a liberação comercial do plantio dos OGM são a Matriz de Interação e o AMBITEC-AGRO / Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO) have only recently appeared and are being discussed by all of the scientific community for having environmental and public health implications. By being a vast subject, only the release for the commercial plantation of the OGM was studied, showing its advantages and disadvantages. In the following work, data of GMO commercial plantations in both Brazil and globally are presented, showing an increase of the use of these organisms in world-wide agriculture. Also included is a brief historical account of the approval and release of GMOs for commercial plantation in Brazil. It was taking in account the necessity of conducting the Environmental Impact Study (EIA), a component of the Environmental Impact Assessment (AIA) that is an instrument of the application of the Precaution Principal in the Brazilian legal system. Additionally, Brazilian environmental regulations and regulations pertaining to GMOs was studied. An analysis of the best methods of AIA legally required for commercial authorization of planting GMOs was performed. Each method was verified if it met satisfactory characteristic identifying the environmental impacts concerning to its effect, time, and space. It was possible to determine the best AIA methodology for this case by matching the necessary requirements for evaluating the impact of authorizing the planting of GMOs. It was concluded that the Interaction Matrix and the AMBITEC-AGRO are the best methods for the commercial authorization of planting GMOs

Uma das formas mais integradas, completas e eficazes para a gestão ambiental de atividades produtivas é baseada no ciclo de vida do produto, sendo a avaliação do ciclo de vida sua principal ferramenta. O produto avaliado é o álcool etílico hidratado combustível, por ser passível de melhorias ambientais durante seu ciclo de vida, alternativo frente aos fósseis e de grande importância estratégica para o Estado de São Paulo e para o Brasil. O objetivo é a avaliação do ciclo de vida do álcool etílico hidratado combustível utilizando o método EDIP (Environmental Development of Industrial Products) e introduzindo as avaliações exergéticas e emergéticas na avaliação e valoração do impacto. A estrutura metodológica está baseada nas normas da série NBR-ISO 14.040 e ISO 14.040. Os resultados do EDIP mostram que a atividade da colheita de cana apresenta o maior potencial de impacto para o consumo de recursos renováveis, o aquecimento global, a formação fotoquímica de ozônio troposférico, a acidificação e a toxicidade humana. O preparo do solo apresenta maior potencial para o consumo de recursos não renováveis e para a ecotoxicidade da água. O trato cultural apresenta maior influência na eutrofização e na ecotoxicidade do solo. Pela exergia, verifica-se que, para cada litro de álcool consumido, há uma perda de exergia pelas emissões atmosféricas de seu ciclo de vida, considerando que 25% da cana colhida seja crua, equivalente à exergia de, aproximadamente, 1,38 litro de álcool. Pela emergia, 69% do consumo de energia solar equivalente é realizado pelo veículo automotor. Portanto, a fim de adequar ambientalmente o ciclo de vida do etanol hidratado combustível, indica-se a eliminação da queimada, a redução do uso de agrotóxicos, de combustível fóssil e formas mais eficientes de uso do álcool combustível. / One of the most integrated, complete and efficacious means for the environmental management of productive activities is based on the life cycle of the product, whose main tool is the life cycle assessment. The assessed product is the hydrated ethylic alcohol fuel because of the environmental improvement possibilities during its life cycle, an alternative for fossil fuel and its great strategic importance to Sao Paulo State and Brazil. The goal is the life cycle assessment of hydrated ethylic alcohol fuel using EDIP (Environmental Development of Industrial Products) method and introducing exergy and emergy methods on the impact assessment and valuation. The methodological structure is based on the norms NBR-ISO 14.040 and ISO 14.040 series. The EDIP results show that the sugar cane harvesting activity presents the highest potential impact for the renewable resources consumption, the global warming, the photochemical ozone formation, the acidification and the human toxicity. The soil preparation activity presents the highest potential for the non-renewable resources and the ecotoxicity in water. The cultivation activity presents the highest potential for the nutrient enrichment and the ecotoxicity in soil. With the exergy method, it is verified that for each liter of alcohol consumed, there is an exergy lost by the atmospheric emissions of its life cycle, considering 25% of the total sugar cane cultivated and harvested is not burned, which is equivalent to the exergy of, approximately, 1.38 liter of alcohol. By the emergy method, 69% of the equivalent solar energy consumption is performed by the vehicle. Therefore, in order to achieve an environmentally benign life cycle of the hydrated ethylic alcohol fuel, it is indicated the sugar cane burning elimination, pesticides and fossil fuel reduction and more efficient manners of using alcohol fuel.

Os Organismos Geneticamente Modificados (OGM) surgiram há poucos anos e estão sendo discutidos por toda a comunidade científica por ter implicações ambientais e na saúde pública. Por ser um tema vasto, foi estudado apenas a liberação para o plantio comercial dos OGM, mostrando suas vantagens e desvantagens. Neste trabalho são apresentados vários dados das plantações comerciais dos OGM no Brasil e no restante do mundo, mostrando o aumento do uso destes organismos na agricultura mundial. Esta dissertação apresenta um breve histórico da liberação para o plantio comercial dos OGM no Brasil e os seus aspectos legais. Foram pesquisados os aspectos legais para essa liberação, levando em conta a necessidade de ser feito o Estudo de Impacto Ambiental (EIA), que é um instrumento de aplicação do Princípio da Precaução existente no ordenamento jurídico brasileiro, do qual a Avaliação de Impacto Ambiental (AIA) é uma de suas ferramentas. Nesse contexto foi estudada a legislação brasileira sobre o meio ambiente e sobre os OGM. Para se decidir quais são os melhores métodos de AIA, para liberação comercial do plantio dos OGM, de acordo com as exigências legais, foi feita uma pesquisa revisando esses métodos. Foi verificado para cada Método se ele apresenta características de identificar satisfatoriamente os impactos ambientais em relação aos seus efeitos, espaço e tempo. Sabendo-se quais as exigências de avaliação de impacto necessárias para a liberação do plantio dos OGM foi possível identificar as metodologias de AIA mais indicadas para o caso. Concluiu-se que os métodos mais indicados para a liberação comercial do plantio dos OGM são a Matriz de Interação e o AMBITEC-AGRO / Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO) have only recently appeared and are being discussed by all of the scientific community for having environmental and public health implications. By being a vast subject, only the release for the commercial plantation of the OGM was studied, showing its advantages and disadvantages. In the following work, data of GMO commercial plantations in both Brazil and globally are presented, showing an increase of the use of these organisms in world-wide agriculture. Also included is a brief historical account of the approval and release of GMOs for commercial plantation in Brazil. It was taking in account the necessity of conducting the Environmental Impact Study (EIA), a component of the Environmental Impact Assessment (AIA) that is an instrument of the application of the Precaution Principal in the Brazilian legal system. Additionally, Brazilian environmental regulations and regulations pertaining to GMOs was studied. An analysis of the best methods of AIA legally required for commercial authorization of planting GMOs was performed. Each method was verified if it met satisfactory characteristic identifying the environmental impacts concerning to its effect, time, and space. It was possible to determine the best AIA methodology for this case by matching the necessary requirements for evaluating the impact of authorizing the planting of GMOs. It was concluded that the Interaction Matrix and the AMBITEC-AGRO are the best methods for the commercial authorization of planting GMOs

本論文所針對者乃海岸開發觀光建設之議題，旨在透過深入了解政府對於一般海岸土地上大型觀光建設之環境影響與土地開發的審議機關、程序和審議標準，以發現此類開發所引發之衝突爭議及解決機制。本論文將把焦點集中於開發面積10公頃以上、位於一般海岸土地之大型觀光建設的環境管制與土地開發相關議題，並以永續觀光的角度檢討目前實務上的缺失。 本論文主要研究發現如下： 一、永續發展與永續觀光的意義與價值 永續發展與永續觀光概念最重要的價值在於對環境、社會與經濟三者間的互動提供了一個重新思考的方向，點出三者平衡發展的必要性、可能性以及為生活帶來的美好遠景，同時也開拓國家發展的總體格局。 二、海岸觀光的特性與相關開發建設應有規範 海岸地區具有複雜性、多元利用性和脆弱性等三大特性，因此海岸觀光可能對環境和社會造成負面衝擊，須以具「彈性」為原則並具備在海岸地區彈性地處理自然動態與社會動態的能力，由氣候、生態資源、地理資源、人文、土地承載力以及政策、組織、管制措施、法規共同型塑出規範架構。 三、環境管制—環境影響評估的制度與審査機制、審査標準及其檢討 我國以環境影響評估制度作為各項開發行為的主要環境管制機制，並以由機關代表以及專家學者組成的環評會為主要管制者。相關評估標準包括了直接影響自然環境者、直接影響社經環境者以及其他等三種。目前最大問題在於參與機會和資訊提供有所不足以及多元評估未能有效整合兩方面，並有制度在運用上標準不一與受特定因素影響而偏頗的闕漏。 四、土地開發管制—土地開發審査制度與機制、審査標準及其檢討 未來海岸土地的開發建設尤須注意到非都市土地的相關管制，無論位於都市或非都市地區，海岸觀光開發的土地開發審議都將面臨是否以觀光為最適當或最有利的土地使用方式，以及開發的「規模設定」或稱「總量管制」的問題，海岸的特殊性質並突顯了土地開發管制與環境影響管制間妥善配合的必要性。 五、永續觀光在大型海岸觀光建設的體現 永續觀光和大型海岸觀光建設的結合與協調，有賴環境管制和土地開發管制的功能發揮與彼此合作，核心工作在於透過這兩個管制體系來建立與維持海岸觀光所須具備的「彈性」。大型海岸觀光建設應以社會正義、環境正義與經濟發展的兼容並蓄與共同成長為最終的目標。 最後，針對論文的研究成果對政策、制度設計、政府機關、審查者以及一般民眾提出相關建議，並說明後續研究可努力之方向。 / This study focuses on the issue of tourist development and construction on costal areas, and aims to find involved controversies and possible resolution by understanding the regulations, procedures and standards of scrutiny the government takes. The study considers only large tourist constructions that are greater than 10 hectares in dimension and located in ordinary coastal areas. The paper then concludes with the discussion of practical problems faced by tourist development via sustainable developmental perspective. Main findings of this study are following: 1. The meaning and value of sustainable development and sustainable tourism: The most important value of sustainable development and sustainable tourism is providing a whole new direction to think about the interaction between environment, society and economy. It is crucial to seek a balance within the three elements and to expand the scale of a country’s development. 2. Attributes and regulations of coastal tourism: Three main attributes of coastal areas are complexity, various utility and vulnerability. Thus there may be negative environmental and social impacts resulted from coastal tourism. Flexibility is the rule to get capacities to manage natural and social dynamics. Climate, ecological resources, geographical resources, culture, carrying capacity of land, policies, organizations, regulations and legislations are all components of regulatory framework. 3. Environmental regulation—the institution, regime, scrutiny standards and discussion of Environmental Impact Assessment: As the main environmental regulatory regime of all development behavior in Taiwan, Environmental Impact Assessment is composed of institutional representatives and professionals. Standards of this assessment are divided into three categories: the ones affecting natural environment directly, the ones affecting socio-economic environment directly and others. Most serious problems are the lack of participant opportunities and information, and the poor integration of diverse assessment methods. On the other hand, uneven scrutiny standards and the bias of scrutiny are also loopholes that need to be concerned. 4. Land-use regulation—the institution, regime, scrutiny standards and discussion of land-use regulation: Future coastal constructions should pay special attentions to the non-urban-land regulations. In either urban or non-urban area, the land-use scrutiny of costal tourism will inevitably face the question of whether or not the area has been used in the most suitable and profitable way to promote tourist development and the problem of amount-regulation. At the same time, the attributes of coastal areas highlight the necessity for land-use and environmental regulations to coordinate appropriately. 5. The embodiment of sustainable tourism in large costal tourist constructions: The combination and coordination between sustainable tourism and large costal tourist constructions rely on the collaboration of environmental and land-use regulations. The focal point is to establish and maintain “flexibility” via the two regulatory systems. The goal of large costal tourist constructions should be the aggregation of social justice, environmental justice and economic development. Lastly, suggestions for policies, regime design, governmental institutions, supervisors and the public are made with a proposal of possible research directions in the future.

By 2050, the world population is projected to exceed nine billion and sustainable development measures are therefore critical. There has been a clear consensus internationally regarding the importance of assessing projects’ environmental impacts as a mean to promote sustainable development. The environmental impact assessment (EIA) system has a fundamental role of being a tool for reaching sustainable development. Therefore, continuously enhancing its quality by evaluating the system is important. This study focused on the quality of the review process in the Swedish EIA system, as it is the last step of quality assurance before the final decision-making. Currently, various authorities are responsible for assessing the quality of the environmental impact statement (EIS), something that can naturally lead to varied review qualities. The purpose of this Master Thesis was to question the quality of the current review process in Sweden’s EIA system and raise awareness as to how it possibly can be improved. An approach to promote consistency in the review process exists in the Dutch EIA system, where a national independent authority built up of experts is set to critically review EISs of complex proposed projects. Objectives of this study were to contribute with research on whether or not Sweden should implement an independent national commission to review the quality of EISs, to identify participants’ views and attitudes regarding the subject and to analyze whether or not it is favorable and possible to change the current system. A comparison with the Dutch review process along with eight semi-structured interviews were completed, and results showed that it is likely that the Swedish review process can improve by implementing a national independent review authority and thus increase the current quality and uniformity. The study also found that it would not lead to any major losses to the current system. By using a national authority, standardized working procedures can be developed and independence can be reached through utilizing impartial reviewers. However, feasible problems include funding regulations and having to modify Swedish EIA legislation. It is also estimated that a national commission would not have sufficient resources to review all incoming EISs, hence, restrictions are required. / År 2050 förväntas världens befolkning överstiga nio miljarder och det är mycket viktigt att vidta åtgärder mot en hållbar utveckling. Det har skett en tydlig internationell enighet om vikten av att bedöma projekts miljöpåverkan som ett medel för att främja en hållbar utveckling. Miljökonsekvensbeskrivningssystemet har en grundläggande roll som verktyg för att nå en hållbar utveckling. Därför är det viktigt att kontinuerligt förbättra dess kvalitet genom att utvärdera systemet. Denna studie fokuserar på kvaliteten av granskningsprocessen i det svenska MKB-systemet, eftersom det är det sista steget i kvalitetssäkringen innan det slutliga beslutsfattandet. För närvarande har olika myndigheter ansvaret för att bedöma kvaliteten på miljökonsekvensbeskrivningen (MKB), vilket naturligtvis kan leda till varierande kvalitet på handläggningen. Syftet med detta examensarbete var att ifrågasätta kvaliteten av den pågående granskningen i det svenska MKB-systemet och öka medvetenheten om hur det möjligen kan förbättras. En strategi för att främja likvärdighet i granskningen finns i det nederländska MKB-systemet, där en oberoende nationell myndighet uppbyggd av experter är satt till att kritiskt granska miljökonsekvensbeskrivningar av komplexa föreslagna projekt. Målet för denna studie var att bidra med forskning om huruvida Sverige bör införa en oberoende nationell kommission för att granska kvaliteten på miljökonsekvensbeskrivningar, att identifiera deltagarnas åsikter och attityder kring ämnet och att analysera om det är fördelaktigt och möjligt att modifiera det nuvarande systemet. En jämförelse med den nederländska granskningsprocessen tillsammans med åtta semistrukturerade intervjuer genomfördes, och resultaten visade att det är troligt att den svenska granskningsprocessen kan förbättras genom att införa en nationell oberoende granskningsmyndighet och därmed öka den nuvarande standarden och enhetligheten. Studien visade också att det inte skulle leda till några större förluster av det nuvarande systemet. Genom att använda en nationell myndighet, kan standardiserade arbetsmetoder utvecklas och självständighet kan nås genom att utnyttja objektiva granskare. Möjliga problem är finansieringsbestämmelser och behovet av att ändra svensk miljölagstiftning. Det är också sannolikt att en nationell kommission inte skulle ha tillräckliga resurser för att granska alla inkommande miljökonsekvensbeskrivningar, i och med det krävs begränsningar.

本研究聚焦反對中科三期建廠的個案，採用法律與社會的研究取徑敘述社會運動者的法意識與法律動員歷程。2010年，當臺中后里農民拿到確認勝訴判決時，以為中科三期會就此停工。後續，行政院環保署、國科會提出了「停工不停產」等等解釋，說明中科三期毋須停工，引發各界討論。前述判決是針對中科三期的后里基地七星農場的開發行為而生，此開發行為的環境影響評估於2006年一階段有條件通過，經臺北高等行政法院、最高行政法院分別於2008年、2010年判決撤銷環評結論，這也是環境影響評估法實施以來撤銷環評結論的首例。 　　2006年，因為環評委員的揭露，反對興建中科三期的居民、律師與環保團體開始集結，在環評審查時便出席會議、表達意見；環評通過後，提起行政訴訟，勝訴後，仍然必須走上街頭開記者會、抗議政府作為。這條路，一走就是五年多。環評法於1994年立法完成，開啟了社會運動體制內參與的途徑，在1990年代之後，環境運動開展了體制內、體制外並進的策略。 　　為何勝訴判決之後，人民還需走上街頭？本研究的問題意識是：法律／法意識（legal consciousness）在社會運動中扮演何種角色？回顧既有研究，法律人類學、法意識、法律動員（legal mobilization）開展出觀看社會中實際運作法律的視角。本研究則意在探討中科三期運動者的法意識，引入中科三期法律動員的過程，結合理論敘述中科三期的故事，也發展法意識與法律動員理論的對話可能。 　　敘事的基礎，是本研究以中科三期為個案收集的資料，研究一開始收集運動者的投書、新聞及法律案件以及理論閱讀；之後開展參與觀察與深度訪談。經過文獻與經驗的思考，本研究觀察到中科三期體制內、體制外路線並進的特點，並著重運動者在其中的法意識「轉換」，同時，法律策略的內涵與運作也是探討中科三期法律動員的重心。回顧運動者法意識的變遷。思考集體行動的邏輯與經驗後，我認為命名（naming）與行動是個人連結集體的樞紐。 　　我認為法意識與法律動員是一體兩面而不可分視的，我提出「理解社會運動中的法意識」分析框架，並且依著這個框架分析中科三期的歷程：「命名與行動」是運動者認知社會結構以及動員的階段；「策略行動」則描述法律策略的形成、擬定過程，運動者在此時會接觸成文法律構成的體制，進而在體制的情境中形成法律策略；而第三階段「變遷與轉化」呈現了動員、接觸體制後運動者法意識的變遷，進而反饋到法律動員的意義與策略決定。 　　本研究探究律師、農民與環保團體等12位運動者的法意識，一開始，這三群人動員的理由各不相同，接觸體制之後，會因為法律知識以及既有經驗形成分工、溝通與動員的模式，而運動者也會產生為體制背書的焦慮。最後，運動者的法意識會有不同程度的變遷，律師認為自己不只是律師，傾向思考體制的變革；農民則在行動中認識、主張自己的權利；環保團體則發現體制的侷限，重新回到社會之中尋找社會結構的變革可能。 　　法律在社會運動中是對立雙方的衝突界線，而浮沉在成文法律與法律動員背後的是運動者要對抗的權力關係。本研究將中科三期運動者的行動歸納為三波法律動員，指出法律動員的基礎與具體內涵。一開始，中科三期的運動者普遍具有不信任政府的想法，在運用法律後，法律動員慢慢成形，最後因為體制內的經驗，強化不信任政府的想法，並形塑法律工具觀。法律工具觀意指以法律為武器、工具的法意識，這是源自於運動者心中更高的運動目標。而正因為法律工具觀的存在，我們可以決定法律的內涵，發掘法律對人們的意義，找出法律的形式與實質之間富含的生命力，這些必須要探索人們的法意識才能得知。 　　基此，我談及運動者法意識與法律動員的三層觀察，我以行動與結構的分析概念入手，觀察行動者所處的情境。在動員與運用法律的過程中，我們可以觀察運動者的法意識，這個法意識又呈現了社會結構；因為有著更高的運動目標，運動者的行動與話語會轉化法律、權利的內涵，行動的同時，也可以觀察法律動員對運動的限制與推進，不過，法律不完全限制行動者，行動者也不完全轉化法律；因為最後運動目標會限制運動者對法律的運用。 　　法律是社會運動中衝突雙方的底線，而中科三期事件中呈現了人們以工具看待法律，同時又引入法律希望解決糾紛、表達訴求。環評法一開始是國家應對社會力量興起的產物，後來，中科三期事件發展中，社會力量使用法律對抗國家，激起了法律與社會落差的動員力量；但是僅用成文法律作為命名的資源，是不足以持續社會的力量，因此社會運動必須從對抗的對象回到自身，重新尋找糾紛的來處以及命名的方向。