Este trabalho descreve a preparação e caracterização de bioanodos para biocélula a combustível etanol/O2 utilizando enzimas desidrogenases, tanto com transferência eletrônica mediada como com transferência eletrônica direta. Na primeira etapa do trabalho, os resultados de cinética enzimática com as enzimas comerciais álcool desidrogenase e aldeído desidrogenase em solução e imobilizada mostraram claramente que os vários parâmetros cinéticos analisados devem ser considerados, a fim de se obter atividade máxima com os biocatalisadores; além disso, os resultados obtidos com as diferentes metodologias de imobilização empregadas (adsorção passiva e automontagem) confirmaram que tal etapa é crucial para a obtenção de um sistema viável. Os testes de semi-célula e estabilidade com transferência eletrônica mediada mostraram que o dendrímero PAMAM se mostra bastante atrativo na preparação de bioanodos para biocélula a combustível enzimática com ambas as metodologias testadas. Na segunda parte do trabalho, os resultados obtidos com os bioanodos preparados com as enzimas desidrogenases contendo o grupamento pirroquinolina quinona extraídas da bactéria Gluconobacter sp. 33 e purificadas em laboratório mostraram que ambos os protocolos de imobilização empregados nesta etapa (dendrímero PAMAM e Nafion-modificado) foram capazes de proporcionar um ambiente no qual as enzimas são capazes de realizar transferência eletrônica diretamente com superfícies de ouro e carbono. Com base nos resultados de caracterização eletroquímica, observou-se que a reação de interesse ocorre mais facilmente na presença de nanotubos de carbono, onde se acredita que os grupamentos heme-c permanecem em um arranjo mais adequado que facilita o processo de transferência eletrônica e consequentemente fornece maiores correntes catalíticas. Os testes de semi-célula etanol/O2 com transferência eletrônica direta mostraram que os bioanodos preparados tanto com a membrana Nafion-modificada quanto com o dendrímero PAMAM se mostraram capazes de gerar densidades de potência competitivas em relação a outros métodos de imobilização. / This work describes the preparation and characterization of bioanodes for ethanol/O2 biofuel cell using dehydrogenases enzymes, using either mediated electron transfer or direct electron transfer. First, investigation of the enzymatic kinetics of the commercial enzymes alcohol dehydrogenase and aldehyde dehydrogenase in solution and immobilized onto carbon platforms clearly showed that the analyzed kinetic parameters must be considered for achievement of maximum activity. The results obtained by using different immobilization methodologies (passive adsorption and self-assembly) confirmed that this step is crucial for attainment of a viable system. The half-cell and stability tests employing mediated electron transfer showed that PAMAM dendrimers seem to be very attractive for the preparation of bioanodes for enzymatic biofuel cell using the tested protocols. In the second part of the work, the results obtained with the bioanodes prepared with dehydrogenases enzymes containing the pyrroloquinoline quinone group, extracted from the bacteria Gluconobacter sp. 33 and purified in our laboratory, revealed that both immobilization protocols employed in this step (PAMAM dendrimers and modified-Nafion) were able to provide an environment in which the enzymes undergo direct electron transfer with gold and carbon surfaces. The electrochemical characterization results evidenced that the reaction of interest occurs more easily in the presence of carbon nanotubes. We believe that the c-heme groups remain in a more suitable arrangement in the nanotubes, which facilitates the electron transfer process and provides higher catalytic currents. Ethanol/O2 half-cell tests with direct electron transfer showed that both the bioanodes prepared with modified-Nafion membrane and PAMAM dendrimers were capable of generating competitive power densities as compared to other immobilization methods.

Este trabalho teve como objetivo o desenvolvimento de biossensores eletroquímicos baseados na imobilização de duas enzimas diferentes em filmes de polipirrol (PPI) eletrodepositados, a fitase e a polifenol oxidase (PFO), esta última na forma de extrato bruto do fruto de abacate. Como a fitase hidrolisa cataliticamente ácido fítico (AF) em íons fosfatos, foram preparados biossensores por imobilização da enzima sobre filmes de PPI para a detecção indireta de ácido fítico via íons fosfatos. Foram utilizados dois métodos de imobilização; no primeiro, a enzima, fitase, foi imobilizada ao filme de PPI por imersão do filme em uma solução contendo a enzima por um período de 2 h, no segundo, a fitase foi encapsulada em lipossomos de dipalmitoil fosfatidil glicerol (DPPG) e depois foi imobilizada nos filmes de PPI depositados em eletrodos impressos. O segundo método se mostrou melhor para a detecção de ácido fítico, pois levou a um maior alcance linear e um baixo valor de limite de detecção. Neste caso, verificou-se que o DPPG preservou a integridade enzimática e levou a biossensores mais estáveis e sensíveis. Já para a PFO, que catalisa a oxidação de compostos fenólicos a quinonas, foram preparados biossensores para a detecção indireta de catecol. Para esta enzima, foram utilizados três métodos de imobilização: adsorção, ligação cruzada e confinamento, sendo o último que levou a melhores respostas. O método de confinamento consiste na adição da enzima, juntamente com o monômero, à solução de eletropolimerização, quando se procede com a metodologia normal de preparo dos filmes de PPI, que foram caracterizados por: microscopia de força atômica (AFM), microscopia eletrônica de varredura (MEV), espectroscopia de infravermelho por transformada de Fourier (FTIR) e espectroscopia de reflexão e absorção no infravermelho com modulação da polarização (PM-IRRAS). Estas técnicas de caracterização permitiram com que a presença da enzima fosse associada às modificações das características estruturais e morfológicas dos filmes de PPI. / This doctoral thesis reports on the development of electrochemical biosensors based on the immobilization of enzymes phytase and polyphenol oxidase (PPO) (the latter in the form of crude extract of avocado fruit) on electrodeposited polypyrrole films (PPY). As phytase catalytically hydrolyzes phytic acid (PA) in phosphate ions, biosensors were prepared by its immobilization on PPY films for the indirect detection of PA via phosphate ions. In the first method the enzyme was maintained on the PPY film for a period of 2 h, whereas in the second, it was encapsulated in Dipalmitoyl Phosphatidyl glycerol (DPPG) and immobilized on printed electrodes. The second system proved more viable for the detection of PA and showed broader linear range and low detection limit because DPPG preserved the integrity of the enzyme and produced more stable and sensitive biosensors. Regarding PPO, which catalyzes the oxidation of phenolic compounds to quinones, biosensors for the indirect detection of catechol via the formation of quinone in solution were prepared. Three methods of immobilization were used: adsorption, cross-linking and confinement. The latter yielded favorable results in comparison to other methods. The films were characterized by atomic force microscopy (AFM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) spectroscopy, fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and reflection absorption and infrared polarization modulation (PM-IRRAS) techniques and revealed the presence of the enzyme and a modification in the structural characteristics and morphology of the films.

O objetivo desse trabalho foi avaliar estratégias de imobilização de lipases produzidas pelo fungo endofítico Cercospora kikuchii através do uso de suportes não convencionais (subprodutos agroindustriais e quitosana). Investigou-se o uso de equipamentos de secagem (estufa, leito de jorro, leito fluidizado, liofilizador e \"spray dryer\") para desidratação dos derivados imobilizados obtidos. A imobilização por ligação covalente, usando glutaraldeído, epicloridrina e metaperiodato de sódio como agentes ligantes, apresentou valores para retenção da atividade enzimática superiores à imobilização por adsorção e encapsulação. Nos ensaios de imobilização utilizando glutaraldeído e secagem em leito de jorro, os melhores valores obtidos foram para a celulose microcristalina com retenção da atividade enzimática de 179,1%, seguido da casca de arroz 173,9%. A palha de milho foi o melhor suporte na imobilização covalente e secagem em estufa, com retenção de mais de 100% da atividade enzimática inicial. Na secagem por liofilização houve destaque para a casca de arroz (163,6%) seguida de palha de milho (157,2%) e cana de açúcar (154,6%). Utilizando quitosana como suporte e secagem em leito fluidizado, o valor para a retenção da atividade enzimática foi de 93,9% empregando-se o glutaraldeído como agente ligante. Na secagem do sistema quitosana-lipase em estufa a retenção da atividade enzimática foi de 68,2% e para secagem por liofilização esse valor foi superior a 80,0%. Realizou-se a caracterização dos materiais utilizados como suportes e estes apresentaram área superficial relativamente alta, elevada porosidade e estrutura constituída de macroporos. Estas características foram importantes por proporcionar a obtenção da enzima imobilizada com alta retenção da atividade catalítica. Alguns parâmetros bioquímicos e cinéticos da lipase na forma livre foram diferentes da lipase imobilizada. A alteração mais evidente foi a afinidade ao substrato (Km), que se mostrou dependente do protocolo de imobilização utilizado. Avaliou-se o potencial de aplicação biotecnológica dos derivados imobilizados que apresentaram maior retenção da atividade enzimática. Para a lipase imobilizada em casca de arroz o rendimento de transesterificação (produção de biodiesel) foi superior a 96,0% após 72 horas de reação enquanto que para as microesferas de quitosana esse valor foi atingido após 120 horas. Os produtos obtidos da transesterificação do óleo de coco estão de acordo com a especificação da Agência Nacional de Petróleo (ANP). Na avaliação da atividade de esterificação, a máxima concentração de butirato de butila foi obtida após 6 horas de reação, correspondendo a uma taxa de conversão de aproximadamente 99,0%, quando utilizou-se quitosana como suporte. Para o uso da casca de arroz, a máxima concentração de butirato de butila foi obtida também após 6 horas de reação, correspondendo a uma taxa de conversão de 92,5%. Este trabalho demonstrou que suportes de baixo custo permitiram a obtenção de derivados imobilizados com características semelhantes àqueles obtidos com o uso de polímeros sintéticos, os quais apresentaram excelente potencial para síntese de biodiesel e de butirato butila. / The objective of this study was to evaluate strategies for immobilization of lipases produced by the endophytic fungus Cercospora kikuchii through the use of unconventional supports (agroindustrial by-products and chitosan). The use of different drying process (oven, spouted bed, fluidized bed, freeze drying and spray drying) for dehydration of immobilized derivatives obtained by adsorption, covalent binding and encapsulation was investigated. The covalent immobilization (using glutaraldehyde, epichlorohydrin and sodium metaperiodate as crosslinking agents) was the best process for the enzymatic activity retention. For covalent immobilization using glutaraldehyde and spouted bed drying, the best values were obtained for microcrystalline cellulose with enzymatic activity retention of 179.1%, followed by rice husk and corn straw with 173.9% and 169.8%, respectively. Corn stover was the best support in the covalent immobilization and oven drying, with retention 100.0% of the initial enzyme activity. For freeze-drying rice husk was the best support (163.6%) followed by corn stover (157.2%), sugar cane bagasse (154.6%) and corn cob (129.5%). Utilizing chitosan as support and fluidized bed drying, the value for the retention of enzymatic activity was 93.9% employing glutaraldehyde as activating agent. For chitosan-lipase drying using oven, the enzymatic activity retention was 68.2% and using freeze-drying the retention of enzymatic activity was higher than 80.0%. The support characterization was carried out and showed high surface area, high porosity and macropore structure. These characteristics were important for providing immobilized derivatives with high catalytic activity retention. Some biochemical and kinetic parameters of lipase in free form were different from the immobilized lipase. The most important changes was the substrate affinity (Km) which was dependent of immobilization protocol used. The last experimental part of this study was the biotechnological applications of the best immobilized derivatives produced. For the immobilized lipase onto rice husk the transesterification yield (biodiesel production) was above 96.0% after 72 hours of reaction while for the use of chitosan microspheres this value was reached after 120 hours. The viscosity values for the biodiesel samples are in accordance with specifications recommended by Brazilian Petroleum Agency (ANP) to be used as biofuel. The immobilized derivatives catalytic power was measured in terms of esterification activity too. The maximum concentration for butyl butyrate was obtained after 6 hours, corresponding to conversion rate of 99.0% when chitosan was used as support. Using rice husk, the maximum butyl butyrate concentration was obtained after 6 hours of reaction, corresponding to conversion rate of 92.5%. This work demonstrated that cheap supports are biocompatible with lipases, rendering immobilized derivatives with characteristics similar to or better than those previously obtained with synthetic polymers. The immobilized derivatives showed excelente potential for biodiesel production and butyl butyrate synthesis.

O consumo e a utilização de produtos naturais, tanto para a alimentação quanto para utilização industrial é cada vez mais frequente. Assim, este trabalho teve como objetivo principal extrair um iridoide natural a partir do jenipapo, a genipina, a fim de empregá-la como agente de ativação em suportes de quitosana para imobilização de enzimas. Já que, dentre os agentes conhecidos este é o menos tóxico para este tipo de aplicação. Adicionalmente, foi iniciado um estudo para a construção de uma lactase recombinante visando a sua imobilização e síntese de prebióticos. Inicialmente, o jenipapo (Genipa americana L.), que pode possuir até 3 % de genipina disponível em seu fruto, foi submetido a diferentes condições de extração enzimática em um sistema aquoso bifásico (SAB). Com o intuito de compará-la com seu possível substituinte, o glutaraldeído, géis de quitosana foram produzidos e reticulados tanto com genipina quanto com glutaraldeído para avaliação das suas propriedades texturais e reológicas. Após, duas β-galactosidases modelos, de Kluyveromyces lactis e de Aspergillus oryzae, foram imobilizadas nos suportes de quitosana preparados a fim de avaliar a capacidade catalítica das enzimas imobilizadas O tratamento com a enzima comercial Celluclast à 10 % (v/v), a 36 °C e pH 3,7, promoveu a obtenção de 196 mg de genipina por grama de jenipapo – a maior concentração descrita na literatura. Quanto aos géis de quitosana reticulados, a utilização de 0,5 % de genipina (m/v) resultou em géis com propriedades texturais superiores e propriedades reológicas similares aos géis reticulados com 3 % de glutaraldeído (v/v). No geral, a hidrólise da lactose com a β-galactosidase de K. lactis imobilizada em quitosana ativada com 0,5 % de genipina (m/v) foi superior ao grau de hidrólise alcançada com as β-galactosidases imobilizadas em quitosana ativada com 3 % de glutaraldeído (v/v) (87 % e 9 %, respectivamente). Assim, a genipina extraída mostrou ser uma excelente substituta do glutaraldeído na ativação da quitosana e para utilização na imobilização de enzimas. Por fim, foi realizado o estudo para obtenção de uma β-galactosidase recombinante visando a síntese de galacto-oligossacarídeos (GOS). / The consumption and use of natural products, both for food or for industrial use is increasingly common. Thus, the main objective of this work was to extract a natural iridoid from genipap, genipin, in order to use it as an crosslinking agent in chitosan supports for immobilization of enzymes. Since, among the known agents, it is the least toxic for this type of application. In addition, a study was started for a construction of a recombinant lactase aiming at its immobilization and synthesis of prebiotics. Initially, which may have up to 3% genipin available in its fruit, was submitted to different enzyme-assisted extractions in an aqueous biphasic system (ABS). Moreover, in order to compare it with its possible substituent, glutaraldehyde, chitosan gels were prepared and crosslinked with genipin and glutaraldehyde for evaluation of their textural and rheological properties. Lastly, the crosslinked chitosan was used as support for the immobilization of two model β-galactosidases from Kluyveromyces lactis and Aspergillus oryzae, in order to evaluate their catalytic capacities. The treatment carried out with Celluclast 10 % (v/v), at 36 °C and pH 3.7, provided an extraction of 196 mg of genipin per gram of genipap - the highest genipin concentration found in literature until now Chitosan gels crosslinked with genipin 0.5 % (w/v) showed better textural and similar rheological properties when compared to the chitosan crosslinked with glutaraldehyde 3 % (v/v). In general, the percentage of lactose hydrolysis by the β-galactosidases from K. lactis immobilized using genipin as a crosslinker was higher than when glutaraldehyde was used (87 % and 9 %, respectively). Therefore, genipin proves to be an excellent alternative for the use of glutaraldehyde in chitosan crosslinking studies. Finally, a study was carried out to obtain a recombinant β-galactosidase for the synthesis of galactooligosaccharides (GOS).

Lipases (EC 3.1.1.3) são um grupo de enzimas que catalisam a hidrólise e síntese de triacilgliceróis. Estas enzimas apresentam estabilidade em diversos solventes orgânicos, podendo ser aplicadas como biocatalisadores em vários processos anteriormente realizados apenas por catalisadores químicos. Este trabalho teve como objetivo produzir, purificar e imobilizar lipases de Staphylococcus warneri EX17, cepa capaz de utilizar glicerol como fonte de carbono. Inicialmente, as condições de cultivo para produção de lipases foram otimizadas através de duas ferramentas de planejamento experimental: delineamento Placket Burman (P-B) e delineamento composto central rotacional (DCCR). Determinou-se que as melhores condições para produção desta enzima são: temperatura de 36 °C; pH 8,1; 30 g/L de glicerol; 3,0 g/L de óleo de oliva e 2,5 g/L de óleo de soja. Também se verificou ser possível a utilização de glicerol residual, oriundo da síntese enzimática de biodiesel como fonte de carbono. O extrato enzimático mostrou-se estável em três solventes orgânicos testados (metanol, etanol e η-hexano). Ainda visando a otimização das condições de cultivo, foram realizados cultivos submersos em biorreatores a fim de estudar a influência da taxa volumétrica de transferência de oxigênio (kLa) e do controle do pH, na produção da enzima. A maior produção de lipases ocorreu quando aplicado um kLa de 38 h-1 e com o pH controlado em 7,0 ao longo do cultivo, o que permitiu aumentar a produção da enzima em 5 vezes, em relação ao obtido nas condições anteriormente empregadas. A purificação da lipase foi realizada baseando-se no mecanismo de ativação interfacial destas enzimas sobre superfícies hidrofóbicas. Duas resinas foram testadas, octil-Sepharose e butil- Toyopearl. A lipase produzida foi purificada em apenas um passo utilizando esta última resina. Foi estudada a hiperativação da lipase purificada na presença de detergentes, a atividade lipolítica foi aumentada em 2,5 vezes na presença de 0,1% de Triton X-100. A lipase purificada foi imobilizada através de três estratégias: adsorção em suporte hidrofóbico; união covalente unipontual e união covalente multipontual. A influência da imobilização na modulação das propriedades da enzima foi estudada. A lipase apresentou maior estabilidade quando imobilizada multipontualmente. A hidrólise de distintos ésteres quirais pelos diferentes biocatalisadores obtidos também foi estudada. Os ésteres utilizados foram: (±) mandelato de metila, (±)-2-O-butiril-2-fenilacético e (±)-2-hidroxi-4-fenilbutirato de etilo. A especificidade da enzima foi muito dependente do método de imobilização, sendo que a lipase imobilizada unipontualmente foi mais específica para o substrato (±)-2-hidroxi-4-fenilbutirato de etilo, enquanto que para os outros dois substratos foi a lipase adsorvida hidrofobicamente. Este estudo demonstrou que a lipase de S. warneri EX17 pode ser produzida utilizando glicerol residual como fonte de carbono, levando a diminuição do custo na produção da enzima, que apresenta propriedades bastante interessantes para sua aplicação em biocatálise. / Lipases (EC 3.1.1.3) constitute a group of enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis and synthesis of triacylglycerols. These enzymes show stability in many organic solvents, being able to be used as biocatalysts in some processes that were once carried out only by chemical catalysys. The aim of this research was the production, purification, and immobilization of lipase by Staphylococcus warneri strain EX17 using glycerol as carbon source. Initially, the cultivation conditions for the production of lipases have been optimized through two statistical procedures, Plackett-Burman statistical design (PB) and central composite design (CCD). It was determined that the best conditions for this enzyme production are: temperature, 36 °C; pH, 8.1; glycerol, 30 g/L; olive oil, 3.0 g/L; and soybean oil, 2.5 g/L. It was also studied the use of raw glycerol from enzymatic synthesis of biodiesel as carbon source, and stability studies showed that this lipase from S. warneri EX17 was stable in methanol, ethanol and nhexane. Moreover, experiments were conducted in submerged bioreactors in order to study the influence of oxygen volumetric mass transfer rate (kLa) and the control of pH in the production of the enzyme. The higher lipase production occurred when the microorganism was submitted to a kLa of 38 h-1 and the pH controlled at 7.0 during the cultivation, which improved 5-fold the enzyme production, compared to the results obtained in shaker flasks. The lipase purification was carried out based on mechanisms of interfacial activation of these enzymes on hydrophobic surface. Two supports were tested, octyl-Sepharose and butyl-Toyopearl. The lipase produced was purified 20-fold in only one step of purification. The purified lipase was immobilized on cyanogens bromide activated agorese and its hyperactivation in the presence of detergents was studied. The lipolytic activity increased 2.5-fold in presence of 0.1% of Triton X-100. After this, lipase was immobilized by three strategies: adsorption on hydrophobic support, mild covalent attachment, and multipoint covalent attachment. The stability over thermal, organic solvent and detergent inactivation was verified, as well as the influence of the immobilization protocol in the modulation of the properties of the enzyme. The lipase showed higher stability when multipointly immobilized on glyoxyl agarose. The hydrolysis of different chiral esters by the three biocatalysts obtained was also studied. The esters used were: (±) methyl mandelate, ((±) methyl mandelate, (±)-2-O-butyryl-2-phenylacetic acid, (±)-2-hydroxy-4-phenyl-butyric acid ethyl ester. The specificity of the enzyme was highly dependent of the protocol of immobilization, and the lipase mildly immobilized on cyanogen bromide agarose was more specific to the hydrolysis of (±)-2-hydroxy-4-phenyl-butyric acid ethyl ester, while for the other two substrates was the lipase adsorbed on octyl agarose. This study demonstrated that the lipase from S. warneri EX17 can be produced using raw glycerol as carbon source, contributing to the reduction in production costs of the enzyme, and the enzyme, when immobilized on different supports, presented quite interesting properties that may be usefull as biocatalysts.

Fruto-oligossacarídeos (FOS) são fibras prebióticas com poder adoçante considerável, sendo um produto de alto valor para a indústria de alimentos. Açúcar invertido é o produto da hidrólise da sacarose possuindo maior poder adoçante, menor susceptibilidade à cristalização e maior higroscopicidade com relação à sacarose, sendo de grande interesse industrial. Ambos produtos podem ser produzidos por reações enzimáticas, utilizando β-frutosiltransferase e β- frutofuranosidase respectivamente, no entanto processos enzimáticos costumam ser caros devido ao alto custo e baixa estabilidade de enzimas. Esses fatores podem ser contornados com a imobilização da enzima, permitindo a reutilização e por vezes aumentando a estabilidade. No presente trabalho a enzima β-frutosiltransferase proveniente de um extrato comercial de Aspergillus aculeatus (Viscozyme L) foi parcialmente purificada, com resina de troca iônica, imobilizada covalentemente em esferas de quitosana e utilizada na produção de FOS. O processo de purificação aumentou a atividade específica em 6 vezes. A estabilidade do biocatalisador imobilizado foi avaliada em 50 bateladas para produção de FOS, foi observado cerca de 55 % de rendimento em cada batelada, sem perda de atividade detectada após as utilizações. Após esse experimento foi testada a utilização das esferas em reatores contínuos com leito fixo e fluidizado, com rendimentos de 59 % e 54 % respectivamente. A produção de açúcar invertido foi feita utilizando a enzima Maxinvert L (β-frutofuranosidase de Saccharomyces cerevisiae) que foi imobilizada, da mesma forma, em esferas de quitosana e sua utilização foi testada em reatores de leito fixo e fluidizado com rendimentos de 98 % e 94 % respectivamente. Os reatores de leito fixo possuem potencial para estudos envolvendo aplicações industriais tanto para produção de FOS quanto para produção de Açúcar Invertido. / Fructooligosaccharides (FOS) are prebiotic fibre with sweetening power, being a highvalue product for the food industry. Invert sugar is the product of sucrose hydrolysis; it has a higher sweetening power, it is less susceptible to crystallization and has a higher hygroscopicity than regular sugar. Finding many uses in food industry processes. Both products can be obtained by enzymatic reactions using β-fructosyltransferase and β- fructofuranosidase, respectively. However, enzymatic processes are often costly because of high enzymatic cost and lack of operational stability. These drawbacks can be overcome by immobilization of enzyme, enabling reuses and usually increasing its stability. In the present work, β-fructofuranosidase from a commercial preparation from Aspergillus aculeatus (Viscozyme L) was partially purified, covalently immobilized on chitosan spheres and used for FOS production. Partial purification resulted in a 6-fold increase in specific activity. Operational stability of biocatalyst was evaluated along 50 batches, resulting in around 55 % yield on each batch and no loss of activity after batches. The immobilized biocatalyst was also used for FOS production in packed bed and fluidized bed reactors with yields of 59 % and 54 % respectively. Invert sugar production was carried out using Maxinvert L (β- fructofuranosidase from Saccharomyces cerevisiae) immobilized, by the same method, on chitosan spheres. Its application on packed bed and fluidized bed reactors was evaluated resulting in yields of 98 % and 94 % respectively. The packed bed reactors presented potential for further studies aiming industrial applications for FOS and Invert Sugar production.

Chitosan, a copolymer of glucosamine and N-acetyl glucosamine, is a polycationic, biocompatible and biodegradable polymer. In addition, chitosan has different functional groups that can be modified with a wide array of ligands. Because of its unique physicochemical properties, chitosan has great potential in a range of biomedical applications, including tissue engineering, non-viral gene delivery and enzyme immobilization. In our work, the primary amine groups of chitosan were utilized for chitosan modification through biotinylation using N-hydroxysuccinimide chemistry. This was followed by the addition of avidin which strongly binds to biotin. Biotinylated ligands such as polyethylene glycol (PEG) and RGD peptide sequence, or biotinylated enzymes such as trypsin, were then added to modify the surface properties of the chitosan for a variety of purposes. Modified chitosans were formulated into nano-sized particles or cast into films. Different factors affecting fabrication of chitosan particles, such as the pH of the preparation, the inclusion of polyanions, the charge ratios and the degree of deacetylation and the molecular weight of chitosan were studied. Similarly, parameters affecting the fabrication of chitosan films, such as cross-linking, were investigated for potential applications in tissue engineering and enzyme immobilization. It was found that the inclusion of dextran sulfate resulted in optimum interaction between chitosan and DNA, as shown by the high stability of these nanoparticles and their high in vitro transfection efficiencies in HEK293 cells. When applying these formulations as DNA vaccines in vivo, chitosan nanoparticles loaded with the ovalbumin antigen and the plasmid DNA encoding the same antigen resulted in the highest antibody response in C57BL/6 mice. Furthermore, engineering of the surface of chitosan nanoparticles was done by utilizing the avidin-biotin interaction for attaching PEG and RGD. The modified formulations were tested for their in vitro gene delivery properties and it was found that these ligands improved gene transfection efficiencies significantly. Chitosan nanoparticles were optimized further for enzyme immobilization purposes using sodium sulfate and glutaraldehyde as physical and chemical cross-linking agents, respectively. These particles and chitosan films were used for immobilizing trypsin utilizing several techniques. Enzyme immobilization via avidin-biotin interaction resulted in high immobilization efficiency and high enzymatic activity in different reaction conditions. Additionally, the immobilized trypsin systems were stable and amenable to be regenerated for multiple uses. Finally, glutaraldehyde cross-linked chitosan films were modified with PEG and RGD for their cell repellant and cell adhesion properties, respectively, using avidin-biotin interaction. This method was again effective in engineering chitosan surfaces for modulating cell adhesion and proliferation. In conclusion, using avidin-biotin technique to modify biotinylated chitosan surfaces is a facile method to attach a wide variety of ligands in mild reaction conditions, while preserving the functionality of these ligands.

Ce travail concerne l'étude de la dégradation enzymatique de micropolluants pharmaceutiques récalcitrants présents dans l'eau. Tout d’abord, les efficacités de trois laccases différentes issues respectivement de : Pycnoporus sanguineus CS43, Trametes versicolor (Tv) et Myceliophtora thermophila ont été comparés lors d’essais de dépollution de solutions modèles renfermant trois antibiotiques (amoxicilline, ciprofloxacine et sulfaméthoxazole) et un antiépileptique (carbamazépine). Les essais ont été réalisés avec les laccases libres en présence ou non de médiateurs redox. L'impact de plusieurs paramètres opératoires sur les performances des enzymes a également été étudié. Puis, une nouvelle méthode d’immobilisation des laccases impliquant l’activation du support (microparticules à base de silice commerciales) par du glutaraldéhyde en phase vapeur a été mise au point et optimisée en utilisant la méthodologie de plans d’expériences. Après immobilisation, la laccase Tv s’est avérée être la plus active. Des essais de dégradation en présence de médiateurs redox ont confirmé l’efficacité de l’enzyme immobilisée et sa possible réutilisation lors de cycles successifs. La toxicité des solutions après traitement a été évaluée par des tests Microtox®. La laccase Tv a également été immobilisée sur des nanoparticules non commerciales à base de silice ou d’argile ainsi que sur des composites à base de silice et d’argile. La laccase Tv immobilisée sur les supports composites riches en silice a montré une plus grande réactivité et de meilleures performances pour l'élimination des composés cibles. / This work is focused on the study of the enzymatic depletion of recalcitrant pharmaceutical micropollutants in water. The potential degradation of three antibiotics (amoxicillin, ciprofloxacin and sulfamethoxazole) and one anti-epileptic (carbamazepine) was studied with three laccases: Pycnoporus sanguineus CS43, Trametes versicolor (Tv) and Myceliophtora thermophila. Free laccase systems were evaluated for pharmaceuticals depletion on model solutions in the presence or absence of redox mediators and the impact of several parameters on the performance of laccases for degradation were studied. The enzymes were then immobilized on different solid supports: commercial silica, laboratory synthetized nano-silica and clay based composite nanomaterials and used for degradation tests. A novel methodology for the covalent binding of laccases onto carriers was developed by using glutaraldehyde in vapour phase and the best immobilization conditions were determined through a 23 full factorial design. The immobilized Tv shown the highest activity and was tested in presence of redox mediators. Moreover, the reusability was evaluated in several degradation cycles and the toxicity of the solutions after treatment was assessed with the Microtox® test. In comparison to laccase immobilized on commercial silica, the Tv supported on laboratory synthetized materials showed higher activity and a better performance for the removal of target compounds.

Although enzymes show great potential for use in industrial applications, their implementation from a practical perspective is still somewhat limited by various shortcomings in the area of enzyme immobilization. The use of silica sol-gels for protein entrapment has been studied extensively over the past 15 years or so. However, our understanding of the interactions between the immobilization matrix and the entrapped biomolecules is still relatively poor. Non-invasive in situ spectroscopic characterization is a promising approach to gain a better understanding of the fundamentals governing sol-gel immobilization. This thesis describes the application of Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) microscopy, two dimensional (2D) FTIR and fluorescence spectroscopy to characterize the immobilization matrix, entrapped model proteins and their interactions. Hydroperoxide lyase (HPL [E.C. 4.1.2.]) was chosen as a potential model protein for sol-gel entrapment. HPL activity was evaluated by use of factorial experimental design investigating the effects of KCl and Triton X-100 on HPL activity with 13-hydroperoxy-octadecadienoic acid (LA-OOH) and the novel water soluble 13-hydroperoxy-octadienoyl sulfate (LS-OOH) as substrates. The highest HPL activity was achieved under aqueous conditions with high salt and low surfactant concentrations and LA-OOH as the substrate. A significant interaction between salt and surfactant as well as salt and substrate was identified and a hypothesis to explain the basis of the interaction phenomena is presented. To analyze sol-gels with spectroscopic techniques, a sample format amenable to these techniques was needed. Therefore, a spin-coating technique for the preparation of aluminum or glass supported sol-gel thin films containing immobilized protein and a varying degree of the organically modified precursor propyltrimethoxysilane (PTMS) was developed. This approach produced samples that were suitable for chemical mapping using FTIR microscopy or fluorescence spectroscopic investigations. A data analysis method was developed to extract information on chemical speciation and distribution from FTIR data matrices obtained through FTIR microscopy. Results indicate that sol-gel thin films are not homogeneous on the microscopic level. Instead, they are heterogeneous with a clustering in the distribution of the model proteins studied (lysozyme [E.C. 3.2.1.17], lipase [E.C. 3.1.1.3] and bovine serum albumin (BSA)) at the scale investigated. The appearance of these clusters was found to depend on the type of protein entrapped, as well in some cases on the composition of the sol-gel. Moreover, the PTMS distribution was positively correlated with the protein distribution in the case of lipase and negatively correlated in the case of lysozyme and BSA. Additionally, sol-gels with a higher PTMS content appeared to conserve protein structure in areas where lipase clustered. Lysozyme and BSA, on the other hand, seemed to retain their structures in high concentration clusters better at lower PTMS content. A hypothesis taking into account the surface hydrophobicity of the proteins and the sol-gel composition as the basis for these phenomena is proposed. Fluorescence spectroscopy revealed that the PTMS content of the sol-gels had a direct effect on the physical properties of the immobilized proteins as evidenced by a blue shift of the intrinsic tryptophan (TRP) fluorescence. Temperature-dependent fluorescence spectroscopy revealed that the amount of TRP quenching was inversely proportional to the PTMS content of the sol-gel, suggesting that there were varying amounts of water available for quenching for the different immobilized enzyme systems. Analysis of the sol-gels by 2D FTIR spectroscopy with a focus on the amide A region using Gaussian peak deconvolution revealed two different species of water for the 50 % PTMS thin film sol-gels with BSA that could be described as fully and not fully H-bonded. It was also found that these species of water showed different removal profiles during thermal treatment. 2D FTIR of the amide I region followed by absorbance difference spectrum evaluation revealed that the temperature stability of the three model proteins was also sol-gel composition dependent. A hypothesis that the surface characteristics of the proteins determine the nature of the composition dependence is presented.

Although enzymes show great potential for use in industrial applications, their implementation from a practical perspective is still somewhat limited by various shortcomings in the area of enzyme immobilization. The use of silica sol-gels for protein entrapment has been studied extensively over the past 15 years or so. However, our understanding of the interactions between the immobilization matrix and the entrapped biomolecules is still relatively poor. Non-invasive in situ spectroscopic characterization is a promising approach to gain a better understanding of the fundamentals governing sol-gel immobilization. This thesis describes the application of Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) microscopy, two dimensional (2D) FTIR and fluorescence spectroscopy to characterize the immobilization matrix, entrapped model proteins and their interactions. Hydroperoxide lyase (HPL [E.C. 4.1.2.]) was chosen as a potential model protein for sol-gel entrapment. HPL activity was evaluated by use of factorial experimental design investigating the effects of KCl and Triton X-100 on HPL activity with 13-hydroperoxy-octadecadienoic acid (LA-OOH) and the novel water soluble 13-hydroperoxy-octadienoyl sulfate (LS-OOH) as substrates. The highest HPL activity was achieved under aqueous conditions with high salt and low surfactant concentrations and LA-OOH as the substrate. A significant interaction between salt and surfactant as well as salt and substrate was identified and a hypothesis to explain the basis of the interaction phenomena is presented. To analyze sol-gels with spectroscopic techniques, a sample format amenable to these techniques was needed. Therefore, a spin-coating technique for the preparation of aluminum or glass supported sol-gel thin films containing immobilized protein and a varying degree of the organically modified precursor propyltrimethoxysilane (PTMS) was developed. This approach produced samples that were suitable for chemical mapping using FTIR microscopy or fluorescence spectroscopic investigations. A data analysis method was developed to extract information on chemical speciation and distribution from FTIR data matrices obtained through FTIR microscopy. Results indicate that sol-gel thin films are not homogeneous on the microscopic level. Instead, they are heterogeneous with a clustering in the distribution of the model proteins studied (lysozyme [E.C. 3.2.1.17], lipase [E.C. 3.1.1.3] and bovine serum albumin (BSA)) at the scale investigated. The appearance of these clusters was found to depend on the type of protein entrapped, as well in some cases on the composition of the sol-gel. Moreover, the PTMS distribution was positively correlated with the protein distribution in the case of lipase and negatively correlated in the case of lysozyme and BSA. Additionally, sol-gels with a higher PTMS content appeared to conserve protein structure in areas where lipase clustered. Lysozyme and BSA, on the other hand, seemed to retain their structures in high concentration clusters better at lower PTMS content. A hypothesis taking into account the surface hydrophobicity of the proteins and the sol-gel composition as the basis for these phenomena is proposed. Fluorescence spectroscopy revealed that the PTMS content of the sol-gels had a direct effect on the physical properties of the immobilized proteins as evidenced by a blue shift of the intrinsic tryptophan (TRP) fluorescence. Temperature-dependent fluorescence spectroscopy revealed that the amount of TRP quenching was inversely proportional to the PTMS content of the sol-gel, suggesting that there were varying amounts of water available for quenching for the different immobilized enzyme systems. Analysis of the sol-gels by 2D FTIR spectroscopy with a focus on the amide A region using Gaussian peak deconvolution revealed two different species of water for the 50 % PTMS thin film sol-gels with BSA that could be described as fully and not fully H-bonded. It was also found that these species of water showed different removal profiles during thermal treatment. 2D FTIR of the amide I region followed by absorbance difference spectrum evaluation revealed that the temperature stability of the three model proteins was also sol-gel composition dependent. A hypothesis that the surface characteristics of the proteins determine the nature of the composition dependence is presented.