For the last 22 years, systematic rapes and punitive violence against women in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) were utilized as weapons of war and a control strategy. This quantitative study built upon the ecological model of impact of sexual assault on women's mental health to investigate the relationship between the health impacts and chronic pain and depression among women survivors of sexual rape in eastern DRC. The sample included 156 female rape survivors, between 18-80 years old, and raped between 2010 and 2014 while residing in the conflict area. The research questions focused on the association between fistulas, other sexual rape-related injuries, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), feelings of worthlessness, social rejection, support from family/friends, and chronic pain and depression among women victims of sexual rape in eastern DRC. Results from multinomial logistic regression and ordinal regression tests showed strong links between independent and dependent variables: Fistula was strongly linked with chronic illness over 6 months (p = 0.003), and with upset all the time (p = 0.033); PTSD was associated with chronic illness due to violent rapes (p = 0.004) and sadness (p = 0.000); feelings of worthlessness was related to prolonged illness over 6 months (p = 0.024) and feeling blue (p = 0.006); social rejection was linked to avoidance (p = 0.003); and support from family/friends was associated with prolonged illness over 6 months (p = 0.025) and lack of excitement (p = 0.011). The results of this study could assist health care providers in formulating response strategies for identifying public health priorities in conflict area, addressing health needs, and defining approaches for reducing war-related sexual violence, chronic pain, and depression among rape survivors.

Question majeure de l'ordre public le contrôle du meurtre est pleinement institutionnalisé au Liban. Cependant, l'une des tâches les plus complexes du système judiciaire libanais est de prévenir la vendetta. Ce travail porte sur un lynchage exécuté en réaction à l'homicide de quatre membres d’une même famille advenu le 29 avril 2010, en présence des acteurs du système judiciaire. Ce qui a été connu sous le nom de «la vengeance de Ketermaya » —village situé dans la partie méridionale du gouvernorat du Mont Liban—illustre la dérive de la vendetta coutumière dans la violence de profanation. Anthropologue de la violence extrême Véronique Nahoum- Grappe met l’accent sur la convergence du crime de profanation avec les crimes politiques. Fondée sur une description dense de l'affaire notre recherche interroge les dérégulations des systèmes sociétaux et étatique de contrôle du meurtre. Seraient-elles conséquentes aux politiques de régulation menées selon des priorités liées à la sécurité nationale, priorités qui ne prennent pas en compte d'autres problèmes sociaux importants ? / As a major question of public order, control of murder is fully institutionalized in Lebanon. However, one of the most complicated task facing the Lebanese judiciary system is to prevent vendetta. Based on a thick description of the case this dissertation is about what came to be known as “the vengeance of Ketermaya”’ —a village Southern part of the Mount Lebanon governorate. April 29, 2010, a lynching that happened in reaction to the homicide of four family member, in presence of representative of the judiciary system, illustrate a drift of control of murder into a violence of desecration. According to Veronique Nahoum-Grape, “political crimes” and “crime of desecration” converge. Does the drift into extreme coercive violence illustrate a related disturbance of vendetta and legal systems of control of murder when policies of regulation are meant to be led according to priorities centered on issues of national security that not take into account other significant social issues?

O estudo sobre a formação de jovens violentos tem por objetivo formular e avaliar, em nível agregado, os fatores etiológicos mais importantes na formação dos perfis atitudinais violentos entre os jovens, destacadamente aqueles identificados como de violência extrema. Para tanto, definimos um modelo causal, discutindo e operacionalizando a noção de “Disposicionalidade Violenta” (FANDINO MARINO, 2012b) como variável dependente e estabelecendo quatro campos etiológicos (brutalização, socialização familiar, socialização escolar e socialização comunitária) como variáveis independentes, com base nas contribuições da moderna criminologia, especialmente aquelas de Athens (1992, 1997), Hirschi (2001) e Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990). O estudo incluiu a formação de banco de dados com respostas oferecidas por 111 jovens - de sexo masculino, oriundos de áreas de exclusão e de faixa etária relativamente homogênea, ligados a instituições de onde se poderia esperar ampla variedade de disposicionalidade violenta, incluindo violência extrema. Os questionários aplicados e combinados nesse estudo foram a Escala de Socialização Violenta (Violent Socialization Scale Questionnaire), desenvolvida por Rhodes et al (2003) e o High School Questionnaire, Richmond Youth Study (HIRSCHI, 2001), adaptado. A pesquisa envolveu também uma parte qualitativa, com entrevistas em profundidade (abordagem de histórias de vida) com um grupo de adolescentes e jovens adultos envolvidos em atos infracionais graves, internos em unidades da Fundação de Atendimento Socioeducativo (Fase) do RS, e um grupo pareado de amigos de infância desses entrevistados, indicados por eles, não envolvidos com o mundo do crime. As técnicas de fatorialização e análise de regressão estatística do tipo stepwise permitiram a operacionalização e a análise etiológica do modelo de 26 variáveis independentes. Quatro delas, a) treinamento violento, b) experiência precoce com drogas ilegais e pequenos delitos, c) expulsão da escola e d) subjugação violenta, apresentaram coeficientes elevados e estatisticamente significativos de influência causal ( β = 0.54, 0.23, 0.20 e -0.19 respectivamente). Elas explicam, juntas, 38,5% da variação da disposicionalidade violenta. Além de testar o manuseio e a profundidade dos campos etiológicos do modelo, a tese demonstra, em seu recorte específico, o papel destacado de um tipo de socialização comunitária – especialmente o treinamento violento – derivado, presumidamente, das relações estabelecidas pelo tráfico de drogas com as juventudes periférias urbanas no Brasil. / The study on the formation of violent young people has as goal to formulate and evaluate, in aggregate level, the most important etiological factors in the formation of attitudinal violent profiles among the adolescents and young adults, notably those profiles identified with extreme violence. In order to do so, we have defined a causal model, discussing and operationalizing the notion of “Violent Dispositionality” (FANDINO MARINO, 2012b) as a dependent variable and establishing four etiological fields (brutalization, family socialization, school socialization and community socialization) as independent variables, on the basis of contributions from modern criminology, especially those from Athens (1992, 1997), Hirschi (2001) e Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990). The study includes data-base formation from answers offered by 111 young males, derived from excluded and poor urban communities, within a relatively homogeneous age range, linked to institutions from where one could expect a large variety of violent dispositionality, including extreme violence. The applied and combined surveys in this study were the Violent Socialization Scale Questionnaire, developed by Rhodes et al (2003) and the High School Questionnaire, Richmond Youth Study (HIRSCHI, 2001), adapted. The research also involved a qualitative aspect, with in depth interviews (life-story approach) with a adolescent and young adult group involved in serious offenses, inmates in Fase (Foundation for Social and Educational Assistence) facilities in the state of Rio Grande do Sul; and a paired group of childhood friends of the inmates, nominated by them as people who had not gotten involved with criminality. The factor analysis and stepwise regression analysis techniques allowed the operationalization and the etiological analysis of the 26 independent variables model. Four of them, a) violent coaching; b) premature experience with ilegal drugs and misdemeanors; c) expulsion from school; d) violent subjugation, presented elevated and statistically significant coefficients of causal influence ( β = 0.54, 0.23, 0.20 e -0.19 respectively). The four variables explain, together, 38,5% of the violent dispositionality variation. Besides testing the handling and depth of the etiological fields of the model, the thesis demonstrates, in its specific frame, the prominent role of community socialization - specially through violent coaching - which presumably derives from the relations established between drug trafficking and the youth of poor urban communities in Brazil.

O estudo sobre a formação de jovens violentos tem por objetivo formular e avaliar, em nível agregado, os fatores etiológicos mais importantes na formação dos perfis atitudinais violentos entre os jovens, destacadamente aqueles identificados como de violência extrema. Para tanto, definimos um modelo causal, discutindo e operacionalizando a noção de “Disposicionalidade Violenta” (FANDINO MARINO, 2012b) como variável dependente e estabelecendo quatro campos etiológicos (brutalização, socialização familiar, socialização escolar e socialização comunitária) como variáveis independentes, com base nas contribuições da moderna criminologia, especialmente aquelas de Athens (1992, 1997), Hirschi (2001) e Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990). O estudo incluiu a formação de banco de dados com respostas oferecidas por 111 jovens - de sexo masculino, oriundos de áreas de exclusão e de faixa etária relativamente homogênea, ligados a instituições de onde se poderia esperar ampla variedade de disposicionalidade violenta, incluindo violência extrema. Os questionários aplicados e combinados nesse estudo foram a Escala de Socialização Violenta (Violent Socialization Scale Questionnaire), desenvolvida por Rhodes et al (2003) e o High School Questionnaire, Richmond Youth Study (HIRSCHI, 2001), adaptado. A pesquisa envolveu também uma parte qualitativa, com entrevistas em profundidade (abordagem de histórias de vida) com um grupo de adolescentes e jovens adultos envolvidos em atos infracionais graves, internos em unidades da Fundação de Atendimento Socioeducativo (Fase) do RS, e um grupo pareado de amigos de infância desses entrevistados, indicados por eles, não envolvidos com o mundo do crime. As técnicas de fatorialização e análise de regressão estatística do tipo stepwise permitiram a operacionalização e a análise etiológica do modelo de 26 variáveis independentes. Quatro delas, a) treinamento violento, b) experiência precoce com drogas ilegais e pequenos delitos, c) expulsão da escola e d) subjugação violenta, apresentaram coeficientes elevados e estatisticamente significativos de influência causal ( β = 0.54, 0.23, 0.20 e -0.19 respectivamente). Elas explicam, juntas, 38,5% da variação da disposicionalidade violenta. Além de testar o manuseio e a profundidade dos campos etiológicos do modelo, a tese demonstra, em seu recorte específico, o papel destacado de um tipo de socialização comunitária – especialmente o treinamento violento – derivado, presumidamente, das relações estabelecidas pelo tráfico de drogas com as juventudes periférias urbanas no Brasil. / The study on the formation of violent young people has as goal to formulate and evaluate, in aggregate level, the most important etiological factors in the formation of attitudinal violent profiles among the adolescents and young adults, notably those profiles identified with extreme violence. In order to do so, we have defined a causal model, discussing and operationalizing the notion of “Violent Dispositionality” (FANDINO MARINO, 2012b) as a dependent variable and establishing four etiological fields (brutalization, family socialization, school socialization and community socialization) as independent variables, on the basis of contributions from modern criminology, especially those from Athens (1992, 1997), Hirschi (2001) e Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990). The study includes data-base formation from answers offered by 111 young males, derived from excluded and poor urban communities, within a relatively homogeneous age range, linked to institutions from where one could expect a large variety of violent dispositionality, including extreme violence. The applied and combined surveys in this study were the Violent Socialization Scale Questionnaire, developed by Rhodes et al (2003) and the High School Questionnaire, Richmond Youth Study (HIRSCHI, 2001), adapted. The research also involved a qualitative aspect, with in depth interviews (life-story approach) with a adolescent and young adult group involved in serious offenses, inmates in Fase (Foundation for Social and Educational Assistence) facilities in the state of Rio Grande do Sul; and a paired group of childhood friends of the inmates, nominated by them as people who had not gotten involved with criminality. The factor analysis and stepwise regression analysis techniques allowed the operationalization and the etiological analysis of the 26 independent variables model. Four of them, a) violent coaching; b) premature experience with ilegal drugs and misdemeanors; c) expulsion from school; d) violent subjugation, presented elevated and statistically significant coefficients of causal influence ( β = 0.54, 0.23, 0.20 e -0.19 respectively). The four variables explain, together, 38,5% of the violent dispositionality variation. Besides testing the handling and depth of the etiological fields of the model, the thesis demonstrates, in its specific frame, the prominent role of community socialization - specially through violent coaching - which presumably derives from the relations established between drug trafficking and the youth of poor urban communities in Brazil.

O estudo sobre a formação de jovens violentos tem por objetivo formular e avaliar, em nível agregado, os fatores etiológicos mais importantes na formação dos perfis atitudinais violentos entre os jovens, destacadamente aqueles identificados como de violência extrema. Para tanto, definimos um modelo causal, discutindo e operacionalizando a noção de “Disposicionalidade Violenta” (FANDINO MARINO, 2012b) como variável dependente e estabelecendo quatro campos etiológicos (brutalização, socialização familiar, socialização escolar e socialização comunitária) como variáveis independentes, com base nas contribuições da moderna criminologia, especialmente aquelas de Athens (1992, 1997), Hirschi (2001) e Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990). O estudo incluiu a formação de banco de dados com respostas oferecidas por 111 jovens - de sexo masculino, oriundos de áreas de exclusão e de faixa etária relativamente homogênea, ligados a instituições de onde se poderia esperar ampla variedade de disposicionalidade violenta, incluindo violência extrema. Os questionários aplicados e combinados nesse estudo foram a Escala de Socialização Violenta (Violent Socialization Scale Questionnaire), desenvolvida por Rhodes et al (2003) e o High School Questionnaire, Richmond Youth Study (HIRSCHI, 2001), adaptado. A pesquisa envolveu também uma parte qualitativa, com entrevistas em profundidade (abordagem de histórias de vida) com um grupo de adolescentes e jovens adultos envolvidos em atos infracionais graves, internos em unidades da Fundação de Atendimento Socioeducativo (Fase) do RS, e um grupo pareado de amigos de infância desses entrevistados, indicados por eles, não envolvidos com o mundo do crime. As técnicas de fatorialização e análise de regressão estatística do tipo stepwise permitiram a operacionalização e a análise etiológica do modelo de 26 variáveis independentes. Quatro delas, a) treinamento violento, b) experiência precoce com drogas ilegais e pequenos delitos, c) expulsão da escola e d) subjugação violenta, apresentaram coeficientes elevados e estatisticamente significativos de influência causal ( β = 0.54, 0.23, 0.20 e -0.19 respectivamente). Elas explicam, juntas, 38,5% da variação da disposicionalidade violenta. Além de testar o manuseio e a profundidade dos campos etiológicos do modelo, a tese demonstra, em seu recorte específico, o papel destacado de um tipo de socialização comunitária – especialmente o treinamento violento – derivado, presumidamente, das relações estabelecidas pelo tráfico de drogas com as juventudes periférias urbanas no Brasil. / The study on the formation of violent young people has as goal to formulate and evaluate, in aggregate level, the most important etiological factors in the formation of attitudinal violent profiles among the adolescents and young adults, notably those profiles identified with extreme violence. In order to do so, we have defined a causal model, discussing and operationalizing the notion of “Violent Dispositionality” (FANDINO MARINO, 2012b) as a dependent variable and establishing four etiological fields (brutalization, family socialization, school socialization and community socialization) as independent variables, on the basis of contributions from modern criminology, especially those from Athens (1992, 1997), Hirschi (2001) e Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990). The study includes data-base formation from answers offered by 111 young males, derived from excluded and poor urban communities, within a relatively homogeneous age range, linked to institutions from where one could expect a large variety of violent dispositionality, including extreme violence. The applied and combined surveys in this study were the Violent Socialization Scale Questionnaire, developed by Rhodes et al (2003) and the High School Questionnaire, Richmond Youth Study (HIRSCHI, 2001), adapted. The research also involved a qualitative aspect, with in depth interviews (life-story approach) with a adolescent and young adult group involved in serious offenses, inmates in Fase (Foundation for Social and Educational Assistence) facilities in the state of Rio Grande do Sul; and a paired group of childhood friends of the inmates, nominated by them as people who had not gotten involved with criminality. The factor analysis and stepwise regression analysis techniques allowed the operationalization and the etiological analysis of the 26 independent variables model. Four of them, a) violent coaching; b) premature experience with ilegal drugs and misdemeanors; c) expulsion from school; d) violent subjugation, presented elevated and statistically significant coefficients of causal influence ( β = 0.54, 0.23, 0.20 e -0.19 respectively). The four variables explain, together, 38,5% of the violent dispositionality variation. Besides testing the handling and depth of the etiological fields of the model, the thesis demonstrates, in its specific frame, the prominent role of community socialization - specially through violent coaching - which presumably derives from the relations established between drug trafficking and the youth of poor urban communities in Brazil.

History has proved that too much power, in any form, is detrimental to the greater good of the society concerned. People at the hands of the power-hungry face discrimination and are often subjected to extreme violence and abuse. Society has undergone several changes and progressions through time, including economic, political and social changes. One thing that has remained unchanged however, is man‟s power over woman. Patriarchal power is present in all sectors and scenarios of society, from the home to the international legal system. My study focuses on the notion that an abundance of power leads to fear, violence and total disarray at the micro and macro levels of society. I argue that the essential problem in the relationship between man and woman is not a man‟s abuse of power, but rather that he has too much power in the first place. A culture of entitlement breeds among men, enabling them to treat women as inferior, sub-human objects. Definitions of male and female prove to be concreted into specific roles and gendered identities within the home and the greater society. People fall automatically into these roles, blindly and unquestioningly. It is for this reason that I maintain all members of society ensure the survival of patriarchy – even if they do so unconsciously. While the difference in the understanding of rape and sexual intercourse should be stark, it is blurred because they are defined according to male terms. Man‟s entitlement allows him to think it his right to take sex from a woman, even if she does not offer it willingly. Culture and tradition serve as major obstacles in any possibility of society‟s progression. Culture has proved such an undisputed order in society that it even trumps the international legal system of human rights. Culture justifies, or at least trivialises, the abuse of women. The social stigmatisation of sexual abuse silences women, providing further endorsement for men to continue asserting their power. A woman‟s life, as determined by male hierarchy, gender bias, culture and social stigmas, is therefore fated. It is with this in mind that I strongly question the progression of society into a true form of liberality and equality. In order for society to attain such a transcended state, it will have to disregard everything that it knows and deconstruct everything that has defined it up to that point. Until this is achieved, women will continue to live their lives in fear of the silent weapon in war and peace. / Dissertation (MPhil)--University of Pretoria, 2012. / gm2014 / Centre for Human Rights / unrestricted

Plus d'une cinquantaine de processus de réconciliation nationale ont vu le jour depuis la fin des années 80, pourtant la réponse reste incertaine, est-il possible de se réconcilier ? Il semblerait que les violences extrêmes qui ont émergé durant le XXe siècle aient créé un paradoxe insoluble : d'un côté, il faut se réconcilier pour éviter de nouveaux massacres (la violence n'entraîne-t-elle pas la violence?), de l'autre, il n'a jamais paru aussi incongru d'en appeler à se réconcilier. Qui a le droit d'intimer l'ordre à un survivant de génocide d'accepter la réconciliation ? La thèse fait l'hypothèse que la réconciliation n'en est jamais vraiment une à cause de l'incapacité de la pensée libérale à penser la violence et plus largement de la difficulté des sciences humaines et sociales à faire face à la violence. Il s'agit dès lors de comprendre le roman scientifique que racontent la philosophie libérale et la justice transitionnelle, puis de réfléchir à une philosophie du concret et du détail, qui se rapprocherait de l'histoire et de l'anthropologie afin de saisir au vif ce que nous appelons, sans vraiment nous y intéresser, violence. / More than fifty thousand processes of national reconciliation have been organised since the end of the eighties. Yet the outcome is still uncertain: is reconciliation possible? The instances of extreme violence which emerged in the twentieth century seem to have created an insoluble paradox. On the one hand, we must accept reconciliation to avoid new massacres. (Doesn't violence generate more violence?) On the other, it seems more incongruous than ever to call for reconciliation. Who has the right to order a victim of genocide to agree to r conciliation? The underlying assumption in this work is that reconciliation never really works because liberal theory cannot conceive of violence, and, more generally, social sciences are unable to deal with violence. As a result, we have to understand the scientific storytelling produced by liberal philosophy and transitional justice. We can then oppose the storytelling to a "philosophy of the concrete" and a philosophy of detail, which draw on anthropology and history in order to grasp what we almost incidentally call violence.

Cette recherche prend comme point de départ la lecture de textes émanant de deux aires socio-culturelles différentes : le Rwanda et le Guatemala. Issus de narrations de femmes, publiés à partir des années 1980, ils font acte de témoignage d’un événement : le génocide des Tutsis au Rwanda et les violences de masse au Guatemala.Les récits sont mis à l’épreuve du genre littéraire et du genre comme construction socio-culturelle.Le volume aborde, pour commencer, les aspects historico-esthétiques de la représentation littéraire des violences du XXe siècle en Europe et aux Amériques. Il reconstitue l’histoire et les enjeux de la problématique contemporaine du témoignage. Mais encore, à travers l’analyse des différentes éditions des témoignages de Rigoberta Menchú et de Yolande Mukagasana, les dualités communes vrai/faux, fiction/réalité sont questionnées au sein du régime discursif du témoignage.Prenant appui sur la conception dynamique de la lectureécriture 1 pour appréhender l’objet discursif – paratexte, texte et leurs instances symboliques – l’étude s’attache à dévoiler les mécanismes propres aux processus de signification au travers de possibles interprétations.1 Milagros Ezquerro, Leerescribir., México; Paris, Rilma 2!: ADEHL, 2008 / This study takes as its starting point the close reading of texts from two different socio-cultural areas: Rwanda and Guatemala. These female narratives published from the 1980s onwards bear witness to particular events: the Tutsi genocide in Rwanda and mass violence in Guatemala.Stories are examined through the prism of the literary genres of testimonio and témoignage, as well as through an understanding of gender as a socio-cultural construction.This research deals firstly with the historic and aesthetic aspects of literary representations of violence during the 20th century in Europe and the Americas. Itinvestigates the history of and contemporary concerns about ‘eye witness accounts’* ‘testimony’. Further, through the study and analysis of various editions of the testimonies of Rigoberta Menchú and Yolande Mukagasana, it questions the common dualities of true/false, fiction/reality in the discursive regime of the testimony. Based on the dynamic conception of readingwriting1 to comprehend the discursive object – paratext, text and their symbolic representations – this research aims to unveil the mechanisms at work in the signification process through various interpretations.1 Milagros Ezquerro, Leerescribir., México; Paris, Rilma 2: ADEHL, 2008.

Ce travail de recherche examine la représentation de l'expérience des violences extrêmes dans l'espace fictionnel contemporain de l'Afrique subsaharienne francophone. Les nombreuses fictions en prose produites dans le sillage des conflits armés des années 90 et du génocide au Rwanda soulèvent des interrogations liées à la représentation de la douleur, de la cruauté et de la mort ainsi qu’à l'éthique de l'art. Comment le texte littéraire met-il en récit les événements traumatiques ? Comment l'écrivain pense et problématise-t-il des crises extrêmes relevant de l'histoire immédiate ? Selon quelles modalités littéraires sont-elles constituées en un objet de connaissance et de sensibilisation ? Et quelles sont les stratégies langagières et esthétiques privilégiées pour transmettre la mémoire des atrocités dans une visée de témoignage ou de réflexion critique ? Cette thèse explore la mise en écriture de ces drames collectifs qui inaugurent, sur les plans historique et socioculturel, une nouvelle ère de violence en Afrique subsaharienne. Dans ce contexte, nous nous intéressons surtout aux ouvrages qui – en raison des choix formels et stylistiques singuliers adoptés par leurs auteurs – se caractérisent par une radicalisation du discours et des scénographies particulièrement violentes. Cette étude qui, au final, interroge les pouvoirs et les possibles limites de l'art dans la représentation de faits de violence extrême analyse un vaste corpus de romans et de nouvelles parus entre 1998 et 2010 et propose une approche pluridisciplinaire, puisant, à côté des théories littéraires et esthétiques, dans l'histoire, la sociologie, l'anthropologie et la psychiatrie. / This research project examines the representation of the experience of extreme violence in the contemporary fictional space of Sub-Saharan Francophone Africa. The numerous works of prose fiction written in the wake of the armed conflicts of the 1990s and the Rwandan genocide raise questions related to the representation of pain, cruelty and death as well as to the ethics of art. How do literary texts put into narrative traumatic events? How do writers think and problematize extreme crises of immediate history? By the means of what literary modalities are these crises constituted into an object of knowledge and awareness? And what esthetic and language strategies have been privileged to convey the memory of the atrocities in order toprovide testimony or aim at critical reflection? This thesis explores the writing of the collective tragedies that, from a historical and socio-cultural perspective, mark the start of a new period of violence in Sub-Saharan Africa. In this context, we are focusing predominantly on texts that are characterized – through the distinctive choices of form and style operated by the authors – by a radicalization of discourse and particularly violent plots and esthetics. This research which interrogates the powers and the possible limits of art in the representation of facts of extreme violence analyses an extensive corpus of novels and short stories published between 1998 and 2010 and suggests a multidisciplinary approach which, next to literary and esthetic theories, draws on history, sociology, anthropology and psychiatry.