This thesis focuses on the idea that food insecurity and access are real issues in the lives of many Americans. Simply stated, food insecurity is when a person does not have enough food to eat or does now know where his/her next meal is coming from. More importantly when looking at food insecurity is the realization that healthy, local food access is even more prevalent an issue – with increasingly more under-resourced individuals and families being food insecure and unhealthy at the same time. This thesis includes a literature review on diet and nutrition in the United States, a chapter on methodology, history of Bowling Green, Kentucky, where this case study is focused, the benefits of shopping at farmers’ markets, perceived barriers to shopping at those farmers’ markets, and suggestions for overcoming these barriers. Local, sustainable food is the hope for a future of planet earth. It is what nourishes and sustains lives. And, it should not be a privilege. Through researching the benefits and barriers to farmers’ markets, examining these barriers, developing suggestions for overcoming these barriers, and implementing as many as these initiatives as possible in Bowling Green, Kentucky, I have not only compiled a detailed thesis, but I have also been a small part of creating change in the food community in Bowling Green. This thesis can serve as a nationwide model and describes the way to overcome food accessbarriers in urban/rural communities.

This doctoral thesis analyses the role of historical urban agriculture in a long-time perspective, through a combination of overarching surveys of Swedish towns and detailed studies of one town – Uppsala in east-central Sweden. The study shows how agricultural land – town land – of various sizes was donated to towns repeatedly during medieval times and in the 16th and 17th centuries. The study examines urban food production at three points in time, and concludes that grain production and, later, potato production as well was substantial in many towns, indicating high levels of urban self-sufficiency. This allows new perspectives concerning the interpretation of urban food provision, as urban dependency on countryside food production might have varied considerably between towns. In addition, the study shows how urban agriculture was connected to social welfare systems, in particular aiming at supporting urban widows. The results in this thesis provide an historical context to the increasing discussions about present-day urban agriculture globally, and identify a number of factors that may create or counteract opportunities for urban agriculture.

The self-recruiting species (SRS) are aquatic animals that can be harvested regularly from a farmer managed system without regular stocking as described by Little (2002a, b). The potential and current role of self-recruiting species from farmer managed aquatic systems (FMAS) is often overlooked, whilst much attention has been given to stocked species (often associated in conventional culture ponds and cages) as well as the fisheries sector (often relates to large water bodies i.e. river lakes and reservoirs). Using the combination of qualitative and quantitative research approaches, the current status, the important contribution of SRS and factors undermining this contribution to the livelihoods of rural households in mainland Southeast (SE) Asia were investigated. The overall analysis of this research was done based from the sustainable livelihood (SL) framework (Scoones, 1998; DFID, 1999) in order to have a broader understanding of the importance of SRS as well as the rural livelihoods in selected areas of mainland SE Asia which often benefit from this resource. The research was carried out in rural villages of southeast Cambodia (SEC), northeast Thailand (NET) and Red River Delta in northern Vietnam (RRD). The sites (region of the country) were selected based from the intensity of aquaculture practices (less established and mainly relying on natural production, aquaculture established but also relying on natural production and mainly aquaculture dependent) as well as the agriculture i.e. intensiveness of rice production. Eighteen villages (6 villages/ country) were selected to represent the two agro-ecological zones (i.e. LOW and DRY areas) of the study sites. In order to fully assess the situation and meet the objectives of the research, the study was carried out using three stages which dealt with different approaches and sets of participants/respondents; i) participatory community appraisal (PCA), ii) baseline survey and iii) longitudinal study. The different stages of the research were carried out during the period of April 2001 until September 2004. During the first stage, a series of community appraisals using participatory methods were conducted in all of the participating villages in the three study sites. The participatory appraisal was conducted in order to understand the general rural context in the villages as well as the importance of aquatic resources. Moreover, the PCA in a way helped build rapport between the researcher and the communities. The series of appraisals were conducted with different wellbeing and gender groups (better-off men, better-off women, poor men and poor women). The various shocks, trends and seasonality that influenced the status of living in the community, diversified livelihoods and the differences in preference of socioeconomic and gender groups were analysed in this stage. The important aquatic animals (AA) and the local criteria for determing their importance were the highlights of this stage of the research. The important AA identified were composed of large fish (Channa spp., Clarias spp., Hemibagrus sp, Common, Indian, Silver and Grass carps), small fish (Anabas testudineus, Rasbora spp., Mystus spp., Carassius auratus) as well as non-fish (Macrobrachium spp., Rana spp., Somanniathelpusa sp., Sinotaia spp.) which were particularly important to poorer groups in the community. The local criteria used were mainly food and nutrition related (good taste, easy to cook, versatility in preparation), abundance (availability, ease of catching) as well as economic value (good price). Significant differences were found between various interactions of sites, agro-ecological zones, gender and wellbeing groups. The second stage of the research was the baseline survey (cross-sectional survey) which was also carried out in the same communities and collected information from a total of 540 respondents (30 respondents per village or 180 per country). This stage of the study was carried out in order to generate household level information (mostly quantitative) regarding the socio-economic indicators to triangulate the information generated during the participatory appraisal and the different aquatic systems that existed in the community as well as the various management practices used (not limited to stocking hatchery seed and feeding). The different livelihood resources (human, physical, financial, natural and social capital) and the diversified strategies of rural households in SE Asia were analysed in this phase. Another highlight of this phase was the understanding of the various aquatic systems that rural farmers managed and how they related to the existence of self-recruiting species. The common aquatic resources identified during this phase included farmer managed aquatic systems (FMAS) and openwater bodies (OWB) where rural households usually obtained their aquatic products. The various types of FMAS which included ricefields, trap ponds, household ponds, culture ponds and ditches were identified as important aquatic resources which mainly provide food as well as additional income to the rural poor. All of these FMAS were being managed at various levels which directly affected the SRS population. Different types of farmers were identified based on their attitudes towards and management of SRS: i) SRS positive, farmers who allow and attract SRS into the system, ii) SRS negative, farmers who prevent or eliminate SRS and iii) SRS neutral, farmers doing nothing that would encourage or prevent SRS from entering into the system. Variations were related to the main factors (i.e sites, agroecological zones, wellbeing groups) and their interactions. The final stage of this study was the year-long household survey (longitudinal study) that investigated the seasonality of various aspects of rural livelihoods, status of the different aquatic systems and the important contribution of AA in general, and SRS in particular, to the overall livelihood strategies employed by rural farmers. This phase involved a total of 162 households (9 per village or 54 per country) selected based on the aquatic systems they managed and had access to. Other socio-economic factors (gender and wellbeing) were also considered during the selection of participants in this phase of the study. The results of the year long household survey highlighted the important contributions of SRS: i) to the total AA collections which were utilised in various ways, ii) contribution to overall food consumption in general and AA consumption in particular (which was found to be the most important contribution of SRS), iii) contribution to household nutrition (as a major source of animal protein and essential micro nutrients in rural areas), iv) contribution to income and expenditures, and v) improving the social capital of rural households (through sharing of production and mobilizing community in local resources user group management). Moreover, the social context and the dynamics of inter and intra household relationships were understood, especially the gender issues on division of labour (where women and children played an important part on the production), access and benefits (how women and children were being marginalised in terms of making decision and controlling benefits). The various results of the combined approaches that were utilised in all stages of the research were analysed and presented in this thesis. The results of the community appraisals and the baseline survey were used in setting the context (background) of each topic (e.g. livelihood activities, AA importance, etc). Meanwhile, the results of the longitudinal survey were used in illustrating the trends and highlighted the seasonality of particular issues. Overall the study contributed to knowledge by elucidating the status and roles of self-recruiting species in maintaining/ improving the overall livelihoods of rural farmers in Southeast Asia.

This mini-dissertation sets out to examine the perceptions of farmers in the Dasse Administrative Area of Gash-Barka zone of the impact of agro-ecological, socioeconomic and infrastructural constraints on food insecurity, and the coping strategies employed by 101 sampled farm households in order to understand how these strategies increase vulnerability or mitigate the effect of food shortages. Agricultural productivity was low and average cereal production provided only 39 per cent of annual household requirements. Self-sufficiency in grain obtained from own production sustained households for only four months a year. In line with this, the study examined the impact of agro-ecological, socio-economic, and infrastructural constraints to the problem of food insecurity as perceived by the farmers. Farmers perceived drought, erratic rainfall, and weed infestations as major agro-ecological constraints that hindered self-sufficiency in food production. Shortage of draught animals and labour and lack of cash and off-farm income, were most conceived socio-economic constraints that affected production. Lack of farm credit, health problem (malaria), and inadequate farmers advisory service were most perceived infrastructural constraints that affected production and household food security. This shows that food security interventions need to be built around mitigating these perceived causes. The study also investigated coping strategies and their impact on increasing vulnerability or mitigating the effect of food shortages. The coping strategies applied by the studied households were largely consumption-based and non-erosive, indicating that households were relatively resilient to food security shocks. However, these strategies could be detrimental to the nutritional well being of household members, as they determined dietary intake. These coping strategies were particularly detrimental to household food security, as proper nutrition is critical for active and productive life. Thus, health and nutrition related interventions are highly required to address these problems. Food security interventions need to support livelihoods in ways that protect and buffer the natural resilience of households, providing direct assistance when erosive coping strategies are employed to ensure that households remain resilient to the fragile and variable situations in which they exist. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2009.

This case study investigated the impact of irrigation on household food security at Ibu and Kalizinje villages in Chingale, Malawi. The aim of the study was to investigate whether irrigation improved household food security. The study was qualitative in nature. Fifty-eight farmers and three World Vision field staff participated in the study. Group discussions with participatory techniques and in-depth interviews were used to collect data. Data were analysed qualitatively using matrix/logical analysis. Irrigation improved irrigating farmers’ household food security through an increase in production and income levels. Irrigating farmers were better off in terms of crop production and income levels than non-irrigating farmers. Irrigating farmers planted irrigated maize two to three times a year, while non-irrigating farmers planted rain-fed maize only once a year. In terms of income levels, irrigating farmers produced more food than households required, and sold surpluses. Most irrigating farmers began cash cropping after the introduction of irrigation and also earned higher incomes, as irrigation enabled production of crops during lean periods and enabled them to sell surpluses at higher prices. Irrigation did not improve crop diversification. Non-irrigating farmers diversified crops more than irrigating farmers by planting groundnuts and sweet potatoes. Income from irrigating farmers did not increase dietary diversity and the acquisition of assets for irrigating farmers. Few farmers consumed a variety of foods and few acquired assets with the income derived from irrigation. Nevertheless, irrigation has the potential to smooth production cycles and provide food and income during seasons when food and income would be low. In addition, the study revealed the following as problems faced by farmers: constraining size of small diesel pumps, pump breakdown at Kalizinje, floods, pests and diseases, storage problems, lack of market places and poor roads, small land sizes, and expensive farm inputs. / Thesis (M.Sc..)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2008.

The seasonal and diel feeding habits of the goosander, Mergus merganser, the red-breasted merganser, M. serrator, gulls (Larus canus, L. argentatus and L. fuscusj and terns, Sterna hirundo/paradisaea were studied at 64V05'N. Birds' activity patterns were influenced by the nocturnal spawning of the river lamprey (Lampetra fluviatilis). Food selection and food consumption by hand-raised mergansers together with aquarium studies of the diel activity patterns of their most important prey supplemented the field data. River lamprey dominated the diet of the goosander by weight and the sculpin Cottus gobio by number. The fish consumption of the goosanders was found to be about 12% of the available river lamprey biomass and about 17% of the sculpin biomass during the breeding season. In experimental situations the river lamprey was a low- pritority species compared with salmon , Salmo salar, brown trout, 53. trutta, and minnow, Phoxinus phoxinus, when presented to satiated birds of both Mergus species. When hungry, however, the birds caught the available prey irrespective of species, but they selected larger prey when two size classes were present. Experimental results were compared with field data on availability, consumption and the escape behaviour of the various fish species. The rivers emptying in the Bothnian Bay are regarded as important feeding areas for birds breeding along the coast. In early spring they get access to abundant and reliable food resources, e.g the river lamprey. Later on the three-spined stickleback, Gasterosteus aculeatus, supply both Mergus species with food in the river and also along the coast. From the middle of June potential food supply available to birds decreases in the rivers and becomes more abundant in the coastal area. / <p>S. 1-41: sammanfattning, s. 43-227: 7 uppsatser</p> / digitalisering@umu

Human food consumption has changed from the late 19th century to the turn of the millennium, and so has the need for resources to sustain this consumption. For the city of Linköping, situated in southeastern Sweden, the environmental imprint of an average inhabitant’s food consumption is studied from the year 1870 to the year 2000. The average consumer is the driving factor in this study, since changes in food consumption have a direct influence on the environmental imprint. This thesis analyses the environmental imprint of human food consumption from a historical perspective, by applying two different methods. An analysis of the average Swedish food consumption creates the basis for a material flow analysis of nitrogen and phosphorus, as well as a study of the spatial imprint. Emissions of nitrogen and phosphorus into the hydrosphere have decreased over this period for the system of food consumption and production for an average consumer, while the input via chemical fertilizer has increased significantly. The efficiency of this system could be increased if for instance more phosphorus in human excreta would be reused within the system instead of large deposition and losses into the hydrosphere. The spatial imprint of human food consumption shows, given the changing local preconditions, that less space would be needed for regional production of the consumed food. However, the share of today’s import and thus globally produced food doubles this spatial imprint. The results of this study show not only a strong influence of the consumption of meat and other animal products on the environmental imprint, but also great potential in the regional production of food. In the context of an increasing urban population, and thus additional billions of people who will live at an increasing distance from the agricultural production land, concern for the direct effects of our human food consumption can be of decisive importance for future sustainable food supply.

Background: Obesity and the accompanying increased morbidity and mortality risk is highly prevalent among older adults. As obese elderly might benefit from intentional weight reduction, it is necessary to determine associated and potentially modifiable factors on senior obesity. This cross-sectional study focuses on multi-morbid patients which make up the majority in primary care. It reports on the prevalence of senior obesity and its associations with lifestyle behaviors. Methods: A total of 3,189 non-demented, multi-morbid participants aged 65–85 years were recruited in primary care within the German MultiCare-study. Physical activity, smoking, alcohol consumption and quantity and quality of nutritional intake were classified as relevant lifestyle factors. Body Mass Index (BMI, general obesity) and waist circumference (WC, abdominal obesity) were used as outcome measures and regression analyses were conducted. Results: About one third of all patients were classified as obese according to BMI. The prevalence of abdominal obesity was 73.5%. Adjusted for socio-demographic variables and objective and subjective disease burden, participants with low physical activity had a 1.6 kg/m2 higher BMI as well as a higher WC (4.9 cm, p<0.001). Current smoking and high alcohol consumption were associated with a lower BMI and WC. In multivariate logistic regression, using elevated WC and BMI as categorical outcomes, the same pattern in lifestyle factors was observed. Only for WC, not current but former smoking was associated with a higher probability for elevated WC. Dietary intake in quantity and quality was not associated with BMI or WC in either model. Conclusions: Further research is needed to clarify if the huge prevalence discrepancy between BMI and WC also reflects a difference in obesity-related morbidity and mortality. Yet, age-specific thresholds for the BMI are needed likewise. Encouraging and promoting physical activity in older adults might a starting point for weight reduction efforts.

Functional foods are a growing category in the food market, but little is known about New Zealanders’ views or use of them. A study was carried out in Palmerston North over the period 2005-2006 to investigate determinants of functional food use. The study had two stages: firstly focus groups (5 focus groups, n=42) to understand more of the consumer’s perspective, and then a detailed consumer survey. The questionnaire was based on the theory of Planned Behaviour (TBP), the Health Belief Model (HBM) and information gathered from the focus groups. The results from the study showed that participants knew little about the functional food concept. There was also a strong indication of scepticism, with people concerned about adequate dosage and efficacy. Dietary supplements were seen as a way to achieve the benefit without some of the barriers associated with functional foods. Therefore, a significant proportion of the respondents (>30%) preferred to have the functional ingredients in pill form. Other respondents preferred to have functional ingredients delivered in a staple food that was consumed on a daily basis and the most preferred food vehicle was a drink. Nutrition and health were ranked highest as influencers of food choice, with taste and cost also ranked as important. Women were more likely than men to identify nutrition and health as their main influence. An ANOVA model was used to establish the relationships between socio-demographics, health condition and health behaviour and the five attitudes factors (from exploratory factor analysis). No single attitude factor was significantly correlated with all the sociodemographic variables: women had less positive attitudes towards functional foods in general, were more likely to be sceptical and had less belief in the efficacy of functional foods. While more educated respondents considered functional foods to have less personal benefit, and those with lower income had less confidence in their own ability to consume functional foods. Talking to others about functional foods was found to be significantly negatively correlated with all attitude dimensions and intentions indicating that when people talk to others that their views about functional foods become more negative. In addition, people who Prediction of peoples’ intentions and actual consumption of functional foods in Palmerston North currently used dietary supplements had less positive attitudes and lower intentions to consume functional foods in general. Those who had existing CHD or arthritis symptoms had lower intentions than others to consume functional foods directed towards these diseases. Exploratory factor analysis also identified two factors related to intention to consume functional foods; one for functional foods in general and another for disease (arthritis and CHD) functional foods. Women had less intention to consume functional foods in general, while older adults were more likely to intend to consumer disease specific functional foods. A series of models were evaluated by using structural equation modelling to see how well they could predict peoples’ intentions to purchase and their actual purchase of functional foods in general, as well as disease specific functional foods. The analysis showed that the TPB model (R2=57%) and a modified TPB (R2=61%) better predicted peoples’ intention to consume general functional foods than the theory of reasoned action model (R2=55%). However, a model that included the modified TPB model plus 2 constructs (perceived benefits, perceived barriers) from the health belief model was best of all (R2=72%) at predicting peoples’ intention to consume general functional foods. Perceived barriers were the most influential predictor of intention (barriers included uncertainty about efficacy and dose; surprisingly taste and cost were not significant predictors, but this was probably due to the fact these constructs were not explored as multi-dimensional constructs. The models were poor at predicting intentions to consume specific functional foods, but the addition of perceived susceptibility and perceived severity improved prediction of intentions towards anti-CHD functional foods (R2 = 43%). Perceived susceptibility, but not perceived severity, improved prediction of intention to consumer anti arthritis functional foods (R2=37%). The research suggests that attitudes towards the concept of functional foods are generally positive, but scepticism is evident. Functional foods are not necessarily seen as ‘healthy’, nor are they considered a way to treat existing conditions. Thus careful marketing will be required to target product and messages to relevant segments of the market.

Diss. (sammanfattning) Linköping : Linköpings universitet, 2005. / Härtill 5 uppsatser.