La leucémie aigüe myéloïde est un cancer hautement létal notamment parce que le taux de rechutes est élevé, ce qui traduit l’importance du développement de nouvelles thérapies. Ces dernières peuvent tirer avantage du fait que les cellules leucémiques peuvent exprimer des antigènes qui ne sont pas exprimés par les tissus sains, soit les antigènes spécifiques aux tumeurs (TSA). À cet effet, nos collaborateurs ont découvert une source importante « d'aberrantly expressed TSA » (aeTSA) dans les régions non codantes de l’ADN. Ces aeTSA sont présentés par les molécules de CMH I et plusieurs ont provoqué la réactivité des lymphocytes T (LTs) in vitro. En plus d'être spécifiques aux cellules cancéreuses, ces aeTSA sont partagés entre plusieurs patients ce qui fait d'eux des cibles intéressantes dans le cadre d’immunothérapies. Sachant que c’est le récepteur de cellules T (TCR) qui confère la spécificité aux LTs, le but est d'isoler et de caractériser des TCR anti-aeTSA en vue de leur utilisation comme outils thérapeutiques. Pour ce faire, l’expansion de LTs CD8+ naïfs provenant de donneurs sains a été réalisée grâce à une co-culture avec des cellules dendritiques autologues chargées avec l'aeTSA d’intérêt. Les LTs CD8+ spécifiques du aeTSA ont été triés à l’aide d'un marquage dextramères et l’ARN a été isolé afin de réaliser le séquençage du TCR. Ce dernier a révélé que le répertoire de TCR anti-aeTSA est nettement oligoclonal, facilitant l'identification des séquences des chaînes α et β des clonotypes les plus abondants. En revanche, les répertoires de TCR anti-LMP2 426-434 (antigène viral) et anti-WT1 37-45 (antigène associé aux tumeurs) étaient plus diversifiés. De plus, des tests d'avidité fonctionnelle réalisés à l'aide d'ELISpot en concentrations décroissantes de peptides ont révélé que l'avidité fonctionnelle des LTs qui reconnaissent les aeTSA est similaire à celle du peptide LMP2 426-434, ce qui suggère que les aeTSA stimulent des réponses T de hautes avidités. Ensuite, la délétion du TCR endogène a été réalisée à l'aide de la technique CRISPR-Cas9, montrant plus de 90% d'efficacité. À des fins d'optimisation de protocoles, le TCR 1G4 spécifique de NY-ESO-1 a été introduit dans le locus TRAC et, simultanément, le knock-out de la chaîne α du TCR endogène a été réalisé afin de limiter les mésappariements et la compétition entre ces deux TCR. Les prochaines étapes seront d’introduire le gène codant pour le TCR spécifique d'aeTSA dans des LTs et de vérifier que les cellules éditées sont réactives envers ces aeTSA. Finalement, ce projet pourrait ouvrir la voie au ciblage d'aeTSA à l’aide de l’ingénierie du TCR pour rediriger un grand nombre de LTs envers les cellules leucémiques. / Acute myeloid leukemia is a highly lethal cancer for which effective immunotherapies are actively sought. These immunotherapies can take advantage of the fact that leukemia cells can express antigens that are not expressed by healthy tissues, namely tumor-specific antigens (TSA). In this regard, our collaborator's team has discovered an important source of aberrantly expressed TSA (aeTSA) in the non-coding regions of DNA. These aeTSAs are presented by MHC 1 molecules and can elicit T cells reactivity in vitro. In addition to being specific to cancer cells, these aeTSAs are shared between several patients, which makes them interesting targets in the context of immunotherapies. Knowing that the T cell receptor (TCR) is responsible for T cells specificity, the goal is to isolate and characterize anti-aeTSA TCRs for their use as therapeutic tools. To this end, we expanded aeTSA-specific T cells from naive CD8+ T cells obtained from healthy donors through co-culture with autologous dendritic cells loaded with the relevant aeTSA. The aeTSA-specific CD8+ T cells identified by dextramer staining were sorted for RNA extraction TCR sequencing. Amplicon sequencing reveals that the expanded anti-aeTSA TCR repertoire is markedly oligoclonal, facilitating the identification of dominant TCR α and β chains. In contrast, the anti-LMP2 426-434 (viral antigen) and anti-WT1 37-45 (tumor-associated antigen) TCR repertoires were more diverse. In addition, functional avidity tests, performed using ELISpot in decreasing concentrations of peptides, revealed that the functional avidity of T cells recognizing aeTSA is similar to LMP2 426-434 peptide, suggesting that aeTSAs stimulate high-avidity responses. Then, endogenous TCR knock-out was performed using the CRISPR-Cas9 technique, showing more than 90% efficiency. For protocol optimization purposes, the 1G4 TCR specific for NY-ESO-1 was introduced into the TRAC locus and, simultaneously, the knock-out of the α chain of the endogenous TCR was achieved in order to limit mismatches and competition between these two TCRs. The next steps will be to introduce the gene coding for the aeTSA-specific TCR into T cells and to validate that the edited cells are reactive toward these aeTSAs. Ultimately, this project could pave the way for targeting aeTSAs using TCR engineering to redirect large numbers of T cells toward leukemic cells.

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No description available.

Mutations in the SOD1 gene are the best characterized genetic cause of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and account for ~20% of inherited cases and 1-3% of sporadic cases. The gene-editing tool Cas9 can silence mutant genes that cause disease, but effective delivery of CRISPR-Cas9 to the central nervous system (CNS) remains challenging. Here, I developed strategies using canonical Streptococcus pyogenes Cas9 to silence SOD1. In the first strategy, I demonstrate effectiveness of systemic delivery of guide RNA targeting SOD1 to the CNS in a transgenic mouse model expressing human mutant SOD1 and Cas9. Silencing was observed in both the brain and the spinal cord. In the second strategy, I demonstrate the effectiveness of delivering both guide RNA and Cas9 via two AAVs into the ventricles of the brain of SOD1G93A mice. Silencing was observed in the brain and in motor neurons within the spinal cord. For both strategies, treated mice had prolonged survival when compared to controls. Treated mice also had improvements in grip strength and rotarod function. For ICV treated mice, we detected a benefit of SOD1 silencing using net axonal transport assays, a novel method to detect motor neuron function in mice before onset of motor symptoms. These studies demonstrate that Cas9-mediated genome editing can mediate disease gene silencing in motor neurons and warrants further development for use as a therapeutic intervention for SOD1-linked ALS patients.

Derived from and inspired by the adaptive immune system of bacteria, CRISPR has gone from basic biology knowledge to a revolutionizing biotechnological tool, applicable in many research areas such as medicine, industry and agriculture. The full mechanism of CRISPR-Cas9 was first published in 2012 and various CRISPR-Cas systems have already passed the first stages of clinical trials as new gene therapies. The immense research has resulted in continuously growing knowledge of CRISPR systems and the technique seems to have the potential to greatly impact all life on our planet. Therefore, this literature study aims to thoroughly describe the CRISPR-Cas system, and further suggest an undergraduate laboratory exercise involving gene editing with the CRISPR-Cas9 tool. In this paper, we describe the fundamental technical background of the CRISPR-Cas system, especially emphasizing the most studied CRISPR-Cas9 system, its development and applications areas, as well as highlighting its current limitations and ethical concerns. The history of genetic engineering and the discovery of the CRISPR system is also described, along with a comparison with other established gene editing techniques.  This study concludes that a deeper knowledge about CRISPR is important and required since the technique is applicable in many research areas. A laboratory exercise will not only inspire but also provide extended theoretical and practical knowledge for undergraduate students.

I detta examensarbete användes olika bildbehandlingstekniker för detektion och kvantifiering av DNA-mikrobollar, mer specifikt rolling circle amplification-produkter, på mikroskopibilder. Avsikten med detta arbete var att hjälpa Countagen AB utforska pipelines för bildbehandling för sin produkt där de analyserar utfallet av genredigeringsförsök på ett billigare och snabbare sätt än dagens konventionella sekvenseringsmetoder. Två olika metoder för objektdetektion användes i detta arbete. Big-FISH, som bygger på Laplacian of Gaussian och detektion av lokala maxima, samt LodeSTAR, en single-shot, self-supervised djupinlärningsmodell. Förbehandling av bilder var också en central del av detta projekt. DeepSpot, en djupinlärningsmodell för framhävning av punkter, användes för att framhäva mikrobollarna så att de lätt kunde upptäckas, och en top-hat-transform användes för att filtrera bort bakgrunden från bilderna. De olika metoderna utvärderades på ett dataset med manuellt annoterade bilder, en spädningsserie av prover samt prover med samma koncentration. Detta för att få värden på precision, recall och F1-score samt mäta hur robust modellen är när det gäller att detektera punkter. Den modell som presterade bäst var LodeSTAR, med en F1-score på 83% på det annoterade datasetet. / In this thesis project, different image processing techniques were utilized for the detection and quantification of DNA microballs on fluorescence microscopy images. These microballs consisted of rolling circle amplification products, of regions of interest. This was done to aid Countagen AB in exploring image processing pipelines for their product where they analyze gene editing efficiency in a cheaper and faster manner than today's conventional sequencing methods. Two different object detection methods: Big-FISH, which builds on Laplacian of Gaussian and local maxima detection, and LodeSTAR, a single-shot, self-supervised deep learning model, were evaluated for this task of detection and quantification. Image preprocessing was a central part of this project. DeepSpot, a deep learning model for spot enhancement was used to highlight the microballs, and a white top-hat transform was applied to the images for background subtraction. The different methods were evaluated on a test set of manually annotated images, a dilution series of samples, and samples with the same concentration to obtain precision, recall, and F1 scores, as well as gauge the robustness of the model in detecting spots. The best-performing model was LodeSTAR, with an F1-score of 83% on the test set.

Die Modifikation von Genen ist in den molekularen Biowissenschaften ein fundamentales Werkzeug, um die Funktion von Genen zu studieren (Reverse Genetik). Diese Arbeit hat erfolgreich Zinkfinger- und CRISPR/Cas9-Nukleasen für die Verwendung in C. reinhardtii etabliert, um Gene im Kerngenom gezielt auszuschalten und präzise zu verändern. Basierend auf vorausgegangener Arbeit mit Zinkfingernukleasen (ZFN) konnte die Transformationseffizienz um das 300-fache verbessert werden, was die Inaktivierung von Genen auch in motilen Wildtyp-Zellen ermöglichte. Damit war es möglich, die Gene für das Kanalrhodopsin-1 (ChR1), Kanalrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) und das Chlamyopsin-1/2-Gen (COP1/2) einzeln und gemeinsam auszuschalten. Eine Analyse der Phototaxis in diesen Stämmen ergab, dass die Phototaxis durch Inaktivierung von ChR1 stärker beeinträchtigt ist als durch Inaktivierung von ChR2. Um das CRISPR/Cas9-System zu verwenden, wurden die Transformationsbedingungen so angepasst und optimiert, dass der Cas9-gRNA-Komplex als in vitro hergestelltes Ribonukleoprotein in die Zellen transformiert wurde. Um die Bedingungen für präzise Genmodifikationen zu messen und zu verbessern, wurde das SNRK2.2-Gen als Reportergen für eine „Blau-Grün Test“ etabliert. Kleine Insertionen von bis zu 30 bp konnten mit kurzen Oligonukleotiden eingefügt werden, während größere Reportergene (mVenus, SNAP-Tag) mithilfe eines Donor-Plasmids generiert wurden. In dieser Arbeit konnten mehr als 20 nicht-selektierbare Gene – darunter 10 der 15 potenziellen Photorezeptorgene – mit einer durchschnittlichen Mutationsrate von 12,1 % inaktiviert werden. Insgesamt zeigt diese Arbeit in umfassender Weise, wie Gen-Inaktivierungen und Modifikationen mithilfe von ZFNs und des CRISPR/Cas9-Systems in der Grünalge C. reinhardtii durchgeführt werden können. Außerdem bietet die Sammlung der zehn Photorezeptor-Knockouts eine aussichtsreiche Grundlage, um die Vielfalt der Photorezeptoren in C. reinhardtii zu erforschen. / Gene editing is a fundamental tool in molecular biosciences in order to study the function of genes (reverse genetics). This study established zinc-finger and CRISPR/Cas9 nucleases for gene editing to target and inactivate the photoreceptor genes in C. reinhardtii. In continuation of previous work with designer zinc-finger nucleases (ZFN), the transformation efficiency could be improved 300-fold, which enabled the inactivation of genes in motile wild type cells. This made it possible to disrupt the Channelrhodopsin-1 (ChR1), Channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) and Chlamyopsin-1/2 (COP1/2) genes individually and in parallel. Phototaxis experiments in these strains revealed that the inactivation of ChR1 had a greater effect on phototaxis than the inactivation of ChR2. To apply the CRISPR/Cas9 system, the transformation conditions were adapted and optimized so that the Cas9-gRNA complex was successfully electroporated into the cells as an in vitro synthesized ribonucleoprotein. This approach enabled gene inactivations with CRISPR/Cas9 in C. reinhardtii. In order to measure and improve the conditions for precise gene modifications, the SNRK2.2 gene was established as a reporter gene for a ‘Blue-Green test’. Small insertions of up to 30 bp were inserted using short oligonucleotides, while larger reporter genes (mVenus, SNAP-tag) were integrated using donor plasmids. Throughout this study, more than 20 non-selectable genes were disrupted, including 10 of the photoreceptor genes, with an average mutation rate of 12,1 %. Overall, this work shows in a comprehensive way how gene inactivations and modifications can be performed in green alga C. reinhardtii using ZFNs or CRISPR/Cas9. In addition, the collection of the ten photoreceptor knockouts provides a promising source to investigate the diversity of photoreceptor genes in C. reinhardtii.